Key Concepts in Language Acquisition and Learning

Posted on Mar 28, 2025 in Pedagogy

1. When does language acquisition start?

Language acquisition starts before birth. Shortly after birth, children can distinguish their native language from other languages, provided the languages are sufficiently different.

2. Importance of Pointing in Communication

Learning how to point with a finger is very important for the development of communication. Why is this so? Children point to:

• Express themselves
• Express desires
• Share experiences with others
• Draw attention to someone or something
• Refer to things that are no longer present

More often than not, a baby is pointing to communicate something specific.

3. Can Children Learn Language from TV?

It has been found that before the age of two years, children are generally not capable of learning new words effectively from television. After that age, children can learn from TV, but not as much as they learn through direct interaction.

4. First Words in Language Acquisition

What kind of words do children learn first? The first word might be for “mother” or “father,” or something else entirely. Initially, learning is very slow. The second word might appear months after the first.

5. Underextension vs. Overextension Example

A child uses “dog” to refer only to small, brown dogs. Is this an example of underextension or overextension? It is an example of underextension. Underextension, which is roughly the opposite of overextension, occurs when a child acquires a word for a particular thing but fails to extend it to other objects in the same category, using the word in a highly restricted and individualistic way.

6. Different Meanings of “Cookie!”

A child says “cookie!”. Think of two different situations in which “cookie!” has different meanings:

1. When a child sees a cookie and wants to eat it.
2. When a child sees something appealing (like a cute pet) and uses the familiar, positive word “cookie” to refer to it, perhaps expressing affection or desire.

7. Overregularization Error: “I Eated”

A child says “I eated a carrot”. What do we call this type of error? Why does the child say it? This is called overregularization. Children produce forms like “eated” because they have learned the regular past tense rule (add -ed) and apply it to irregular verbs. This happens as they move from one-word utterances to more complex ones. While they repeat what they hear, they are also creative rule-appliers, which leads to such errors.

8. Input vs. Interaction in Language Learning

• Input: The language that children hear.
• Interaction: The way language is used in discourse between participants, such as adult-child conversations.

9. Zone of Proximal Development Explained

With an example related to language learning, explain what the zone of proximal development (ZPD) is. The ZPD is the difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can achieve with guidance and collaboration. For example, a child might not be able to structure a complex sentence alone but can do so with prompts or modeling from an adult or more capable peer.

10. Assimilation and Accommodation Examples

Give an example of assimilation and accommodation in language learning:

• Assimilation: A child sees a zebra for the first time and calls it a “horse.” The child assimilates this new animal into their existing schema (mental category) for “horse.”
• Accommodation: When the child learns the name “zebra” and understands it’s different from a horse, they adjust their schema, creating a new category or modifying the existing one. They have accommodated the new information.

11. Examples of Children’s Language Creativity

Give two examples of children being creative with language:

• Inventing Grammar/Overregularization: Children often prioritize meaning and may not focus on grammatical corrections initially. They apply grammatical rules they’ve learned creatively, even to exceptions (e.g., “goed,” “foots”). This shows they are figuring out the system, not just mimicking.
• Using Language Chunks Creatively: Children learn phrases or “chunks” of language (e.g., “all gone,” “what’s that?”) and might initially use them rigidly. Later, they creatively break down these chunks and recombine parts to form new sentences.

12. Do Small Children Learn First Languages Quickly?

Yes, small children generally appear to learn their first language relatively quickly because they typically have extensive exposure to and interaction in that language within their environment (family, caregivers, daily life).

13. Second vs. Foreign Language Learning Differences

“Processes involved in learning a second language and a foreign language are different”. True or false? Why?

True. The contexts differ significantly:

• A second language (L2) refers to learning a language in a context where it is widely used outside the classroom (e.g., learning English in the USA or Spanish in Spain). Learners usually have more exposure and opportunities for authentic communication.
• A foreign language (FL) refers to learning a language in a context where it is not the primary language spoken outside the classroom (e.g., learning English in Spain or Spanish in the USA). Exposure and practice opportunities are often limited to the classroom setting.

14. Metalinguistic Awareness in Young Learners

Do children learning a foreign language in primary school have metalinguistic awareness?

Yes, to some extent. Even young children develop an awareness of language as a system. They might recognize similarities or differences between languages or understand basic concepts like ‘word’ or ‘sound,’ especially if explicitly taught or if they are bilingual.

15. Corrective Feedback in L1 vs. FL Learning

Do small children learning their first language receive corrective feedback when they make errors in grammar? Is this type of corrective feedback more frequent in foreign language classes?

Children learning their first language (L1) often receive implicit feedback (like recasts, where the adult repeats the utterance correctly) but less frequent explicit grammatical correction, especially in early stages. Adults tend to focus more on the meaning of what the child is saying. Explicit grammatical correction is generally more frequent in foreign language (FL) classes, where formal instruction often includes a focus on grammatical accuracy.

16. What Is Fossilization in Language Learning?

Fossilization is a phenomenon in second language acquisition (SLA) where specific linguistic errors, often influenced by the learner’s first language, become permanent features in their speech or writing, even after years of learning and instruction. The learner stops progressing in eliminating these particular errors.

17. Critical Period Hypothesis in Language Learning

“You cannot reach native-like level in a language if you start to learn it when you are adult”. How do we call this hypothesis? Is this hypothesis correct?

This is related to the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH). There are different versions:

• The strong version claims that native-like competence cannot be achieved after a certain age (typically puberty).
• The weak version suggests that while native-like proficiency is still possible for adult learners, there is a period (childhood) during which language acquisition is simply easier and more efficient.

The strong version is highly debated and largely contested, as many adult learners do achieve very high, near-native proficiency. The weak version is more widely accepted, acknowledging age-related differences in learning efficiency and ultimate attainment, particularly in pronunciation.

18. The Silent Period in Language Acquisition

What is the “silent period” in language acquisition? The first stage of second language acquisition for some learners is called the “Silent Period” because they focus on listening and comprehension without producing much speech yet. This period can vary in length, ranging from a few weeks to several months or even longer, depending on factors like personality, exposure, and learning environment.

19. Strategy: Act Like You Understand

Imagine you are a child learning a second language in school. You use this strategy: “Join a group and act as if you understand what’s going on, even if you don’t.” Why might this be a helpful strategy?

This strategy can be helpful because:

• It keeps the learner engaged in the communicative situation.
• It provides continued exposure to comprehensible input through context and observation.
• The learner might pick up frequently used expressions or routines.
• It allows the learner to observe social and linguistic norms.
• Interaction, even with limited understanding, is crucial for learning. Participating can lead to opportunities for clarification and negotiation of meaning.

20. Ideal vs. Reality in Language Learning Settings

Describe the ideal situation to learn a language, and compare it with the situation we usually have in foreign language classes in primary schools.

Ideal Situation:

• Ample time dedicated to learning.
• Consistent exposure to the language both inside and outside structured learning environments.
• A genuine need and motivation to use the language for communication.
• A wide variety of rich, comprehensible input from different sources and speakers.
• Opportunities for meaningful interaction.

Typical Primary School FL Classes:

• Limited time (often only a few hours per week).
• Exposure primarily limited to the classroom.
• Often no immediate, real-world need for the language outside of class activities.
• Input may be less varied and primarily from the teacher or textbook.
• Interaction opportunities might be structured and limited.

21. Role of Language Chunks in Learning

What is the role of chunks of language in language learning? Give an example of such a chunk.

Children (and adults) often learn and use multi-word “chunks” or formulaic sequences as single units before they can analyze them grammatically. These chunks help learners communicate early on and provide material for later analysis and rule extraction. Example: “How are you?“, “I don’t know“, “Have a good day“.

22. Do Children Learn Better When Having Fun?

Children have problems learning a foreign language when they have fun. True or false? Why?

False. Children generally learn better when they are having fun. Enjoyable activities increase motivation, engagement, and reduce anxiety, creating a more positive and effective learning environment.

23. Activity Combining Physical Action and Language

Give an example of an activity which combines physical activity or experiencing things with language learning.

Example: The Travelling Ball

In this game, one student holds a ball between their legs. They must hop or walk carefully to another classmate and say a target phrase in English (e.g., “I have X brothers and sisters,” or “My favorite color is Y“). Then, the first student passes the ball to the second student without using their hands (e.g., by maneuvering so the other student can take it with their legs). The second student then continues the game. This combines physical movement with practicing specific language structures.

24. Krashen: Learning vs. Acquisition Example

In Krashen’s theory, how can we explain that you know that you should say “he goes, he makes”, but you often say “he go, he make”?

According to Krashen’s distinction between learning and acquisition:

• The learner has learned the rule (explicit knowledge, often from formal instruction) that the third-person singular requires an ‘-s’.
• However, the learner has not yet fully acquired the rule (subconscious, automatic use).

Therefore, under the pressure of spontaneous communication, the learner defaults to the non-acquired form (“he go”), even though they can state the correct rule when consciously focusing on grammar.

25. Krashen: Comprehensible Input (i+1)

“Students learn best when the input they receive is slightly lower than the level they have.” True or false? Why?

False. According to Krashen’s Input Hypothesis, humans acquire language best by receiving comprehensible input (CI) that is slightly beyond their current level of competence. This is often represented as i + 1, where ‘i’ is the learner’s current level and ‘+1’ represents the next stage of acquisition, made understandable through context, visuals, or negotiation.

26. Krashen’s View on Grammar Exercises

“Grammar exercises, such as filling in the gaps with past simple or past continuous, are very useful to learn a language.” Would Krashen agree with that statement?

Krashen would likely disagree with the statement that such exercises are *very useful* for language *acquisition*. He argues that language competence develops primarily through exposure to meaningful, comprehensible input, not through explicit grammar practice focused on form (which contributes to ‘learning’, not ‘acquisition’). Such exercises are often mechanical and lack genuine communicative purpose.

27. Example of Recast in Correction

Write a short conversation between a teacher and a student to illustrate the concept of recast.

Student: I goed to the cinema yesterday.
Teacher: Oh, so you went to the cinema? What movie did you see?

(The teacher implicitly corrects “goed” to “went” while maintaining the flow of communication.)

28. Elaboration vs. Clarification Request

Student 1: You need eggs, flour, butter, sugar, and strawberries to make the cake.
Student 2: Umm… Straw…?
Student 1: Strawberries? Small red fruit. Very sweet.

Which part of the conversation is an elaboration and why? Which part is a request for clarification and why?

• Request for Clarification: “Umm… Straw…?” is the request for clarification. Student 2 indicates they didn’t understand or hear the word “strawberries” clearly and needs help.
• Elaboration: “Strawberries? Small red fruit. Very sweet.” is the elaboration. Student 1 confirms the word and provides additional details (description) to help Student 2 understand its meaning.

29. Example of a Comprehension Check

Student 1: You need eggs, flour, butter, sugar, and strawberries to make the cake. Do you understand?
Student 2: Yes, go on.
Student 1: So, the first step is to take the eggs and…

Which part of the conversation is a comprehension check and why?

“Do you understand?” is the comprehension check. Student 1 explicitly asks Student 2 to confirm whether the information provided so far has been understood before proceeding.

30. Negotiation of Meaning and Input

“Negotiation of meaning can provide the learner with modified or more comprehensible input”. Explain.

When communication breaks down, learners and their interlocutors engage in negotiation of meaning (using strategies like clarification requests, comprehension checks, confirmation checks, etc.). This process often leads the more proficient speaker to modify their original utterance—perhaps by simplifying vocabulary, slowing down, rephrasing, or elaborating. This modified language serves as more comprehensible input for the learner, facilitating understanding and potentially acquisition.

31. Interaction for Testing Language Hypotheses

Write a short conversation between a learner and a teacher which shows that interaction is important to test hypotheses about language.

Student: Yesterday, I goed to the cinema.
Teacher: Ah, so you went to the cinema?
Student: (Notices the correction) Yeah, I went to the cinema yesterday.

In this interaction, the student tests their hypothesis that the past tense of ‘go’ is ‘goed’. The teacher’s recast (“went”) provides negative evidence, prompting the student to notice the gap between their hypothesis and the correct form, potentially leading them to revise their internal grammar.

32. Input vs. Output for Automaticity

“One of the functions of input is to make language production more automatic”. True or false? Why?

False. Making language production more automatic (i.e., increasing fluency and reducing processing effort) is primarily considered a function of output (speaking or writing), according to theories like Merrill Swain’s Output Hypothesis. Practicing production helps learners move from declarative knowledge (knowing about the language) to procedural knowledge (using the language automatically).

33. Audio-Lingual Method: Typical Class

Imagine you use the audio-lingual method in your English classes. Describe a typical class.

A typical Audio-Lingual Method (ALM) class would likely involve:

• Listening to dialogues repeated multiple times.
• Chorus repetition of phrases and sentences by the students.
• Pattern drills (e.g., substitution drills, transformation drills) where students manipulate a sentence structure with minimal grammatical explanation.
• Emphasis on correct pronunciation and avoiding errors.
• Little to no use of the students’ native language.

34. Grammar-Translation Method Activity

Give an example of a typical activity used in the grammar-translation method.

A typical activity is translating a written text from the target language into the students’ native language, or vice versa. Often accompanied by detailed analysis of grammatical structures within the text.

35. What Is Communicative Competence?

Communicative competence is the ability to use language effectively and appropriately in real-life situations. It encompasses several components, including:

• Linguistic competence: Knowledge of grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation.
• Sociolinguistic competence: Knowledge of how to use language appropriately in different social contexts (e.g., levels of formality, politeness).
• Discourse competence: Ability to combine language structures into coherent and cohesive texts (spoken or written).
• Strategic competence: Ability to use communication strategies to overcome difficulties or breakdowns in communication (e.g., paraphrasing, asking for clarification).

36. Language Functions and Communicative Approach

What do we use language for? What is the relation between this and the communicative approach?

We use language for various functions, such as:

• Getting things done (e.g., requesting, ordering)
• Controlling behavior (e.g., commanding, suggesting)
• Creating interaction with others (e.g., greeting, turn-taking)
• Expressing personal feelings (e.g., apologizing, expressing joy)
• Learning and finding things out (e.g., asking questions)
• Creating a world of imagination (e.g., storytelling)
• Communicating information (e.g., describing, reporting)

The communicative approach emphasizes teaching language through activities that involve using language for these real-world purposes, focusing on meaning and communication rather than just grammatical forms.

37. Communicative Purpose in Activities

In the communicative approach, activities should have a communicative purpose. Explain what communicative purpose is.

A communicative purpose means that learners use language to achieve a real outcome, typically involving an exchange of information or opinions that they genuinely need or want to share. The focus is on *what* is being communicated, not just *how* it is being said grammatically. For example, finding out information someone else has (information gap), agreeing/disagreeing, solving a problem together, or sharing personal experiences.

38. Accuracy vs. Fluency in Communicative Approach

In the communicative approach, only accuracy is evaluated. True or false? Why?

False. Both fluency (the ability to communicate smoothly and readily) and accuracy (grammatical correctness) are considered important in the communicative approach. While the primary goal is successful communication, appropriate levels of accuracy are necessary for messages to be understood. Evaluation often considers task completion and communicative effectiveness alongside linguistic correctness.

39. Goal of Communicative Language Learning

In the communicative approach, what is the goal of language learning?

The primary goal is to develop communicative competence – the ability to use the language effectively and appropriately for real-world communication. The approach holds that learners acquire language naturally when involved in meaningful communication tasks.

40. Competences in the Communicative Approach

In the communicative approach, we only focus on linguistic competence, and sociolinguistic and pragmatic competences are less important. True or false? Why?

False. The communicative approach views linguistic competence (grammar, vocabulary) as just one part of overall communicative competence. Sociolinguistic competence (using language appropriately in social contexts) and pragmatic/strategic competence (using language effectively to achieve communicative goals and overcome problems) are considered equally important for successful communication.

41. Information Gap Activities Explained

In an information gap activity, the goal is to share knowledge between the participants. True or false?

True. An information gap activity is structured so that different participants have different pieces of information. To complete a task successfully, they *must* communicate and share their unique information with each other, creating a genuine need for communication.