Key Concepts in Linguistics: Language, Speech, and Acquisition
1. Core Linguistic Ideas
Orality vs. Writing
Ferdinand de Saussure viewed language and writing as distinct systems. He argued that the misconception of written language’s superiority originated in antiquity from an admiration of classical languages. Writing, he believed, relies on oral tradition. While writing transmits knowledge across generations, it remains a substitute for spoken language. Modern technology allows us to record our voices, bridging the gap between orality and writing.
Language Evolution
Language evolves with society, adapting to its needs. This evolution is not a corruption. If it were, all Romance languages would be considered corrupted forms of Latin. Written language can be more formal, but it’s not superior to spoken language—simply different. Writing tends to be conservative, while speech is more dynamic and innovative.
Linguistics as a Science
Modern linguistics rejects the prescriptive nature of traditional grammar. Instead of dictating how to speak “correctly,” linguistics studies the diverse manifestations of language as a science, not an art.
2. Coseriu’s System, Standard, and Speech
Eugenio Coseriu defines language as a universal human activity practiced individually, using historically specific techniques. He refines Saussure’s language/speech dichotomy by introducing the concept of “standard,” which represents the accepted language implementation within a speech community.
3. Chomsky’s Competence and Performance
Noam Chomsky defines competence as the speaker-listener’s implicit knowledge of their language’s grammar. This differs from Saussure’s concept of language. Chomsky distinguishes between pragmatic competence (knowledge of language’s relationship to context) and grammatical competence (syntax, semantics, phonology). Performance, conversely, is the actual language use in specific situations, influenced by external factors like memory and emotions.
Internal and External Language
Chomsky contrasts Saussure’s “externalized” language (E-language) with his own “internalized” language (I-language). I-language represents the speaker’s internal grammar, constructed from universal grammar. Chomsky prioritizes I-language over E-language.
4. Saussure’s Language, Speech, and Linguistic Sign
Saussure’s concept of language encompasses the social aspects of language within a community. He views language as a system of pure values, essential for communication. Coseriu’s concept of “rule” addresses the non-essential elements of spoken communication.
Synchrony and Diachrony
Synchrony studies language at a specific point in time, while diachrony studies language evolution over time. For example, a diachronic analysis might trace the evolution of Latin demonstratives into Romance articles.
Characteristics of the Linguistic Sign
Saussure emphasizes the arbitrariness of the linguistic sign, meaning the lack of a natural connection between the signifier and the signified. He also highlights the linearity of the signifier, its development over time. Finally, he discusses the immutability and mutability of the sign: its fixed nature within a community yet its susceptibility to change over time.
5. Properties of Human Language
- Reflexivity: Language’s ability to discuss itself.
- Displacement: Language’s ability to refer to non-present times and places.
- Discreteness: Language’s composition of discrete units.
- Interchangeability: Humans can both send and receive messages.
- Total Feedback: Speakers perceive and can correct their own speech.
- Vocal-Auditory Channel: Language primarily uses sound.
- Broadcast Transmission and Directional Reception: Sound travels in all directions but can be traced to its source.
- Specialization: Language’s energetic consequences are biologically irrelevant.
6. Language Learning vs. Second Language Acquisition
First language acquisition coincides with a child’s developmental period, driven by a need to communicate. Second language learning can occur at any age, often lacking the same natural motivation. It involves learning a new grammar and adapting existing linguistic habits.
Second Language Learning Theories
Three approaches to second language teaching include: 1) Behaviorist (stimulus-response), 2) Structuralist (parallel structures), and 3) Transformational-Generative (innate language ability).