Key Concepts in Linguistics, Literature, and History

Posted on Mar 30, 2025 in English Studies

Historical Periods Overview

Middle Ages

Started around the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

  • 12th Century: Characterized by early religious, legal, and historical texts.
  • 12th-14th Centuries: Period marked by major diseases (like the Black Death).

Modern Age

  • 16th Century: Renaissance (meaning “rebirth”).
  • 17th Century: Baroque, Neoclassicism, and the Enlightenment (Age of Illustration).
  • Note: The Renaissance period varied regionally (e.g., Catalonia, Spain, wider Europe).

Compound Sentence Types (Coordination)

  • Copulative: Expresses addition (e.g., and). Example: Singing and dancing.
  • Disjunctive (Dilemma): Poses an alternative (e.g., or). Example: Singing or dancing.
  • Adversative: Expresses contrast (e.g., but, however). Example: I sing, but I dance.
  • Distributive: Presents alternating actions (e.g., now…now, whether…or). Example: Now I sing, now I dance.
  • Illative: Expresses consequence (e.g., so, therefore, accordingly). Example: She broke her leg, so she will have to rest.
  • Explanatory: Provides explanation (e.g., that is, i.e.). Example: He’s a polyglot, that is, he speaks many languages.

Sentence Modalities (Types by Function)

  • Declarative (Enunciative): States a fact or opinion.
  • Interrogative: Asks a question (can be general, partial, direct, indirect).
  • Exclamative: Expresses strong emotion.
  • Imperative (Exhortative): Gives a command or makes a request.
  • Optative: Expresses a wish or desire.
  • Dubitative (Hesitant): Expresses doubt (e.g., Perhaps she is lost).
  • Potential: Expresses possibility.

Sentence Structures

  • Coordinated (Compound): Clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions (copulative, adversative, disjunctive, distributive, illative, explanatory).
  • Juxtaposed: Clauses placed side-by-side without conjunctions (often separated by commas or semicolons).
  • Subordinate (Complex): Contains a main clause and one or more dependent clauses (noun clauses, adjective clauses, adverbial clauses).

Sociolinguistic Concepts

  • Diglossia: Two distinct languages or language varieties coexist within a community, each serving different social functions (e.g., formal vs. informal).
  • Language Conflict: Arises when two or more languages in contact within the same territory have unequal status or privilege.
  • Bilingualism: The ability of an individual or community to use two languages.
  • Monolingualism: The condition of using only one language.
  • Multilingualism: The regular use of more than two languages by an individual or community.

Literary Genres

What is Literature?

Before the 18th century, ‘literature’ often referred simply to the ability to read and write. From the mid-18th century onwards, the term increasingly designated creative works like narrative, poetry, or drama, now known as literary genres.

What are Literary Genres?

Literary genres are categories used to classify literary works based on their subject matter, form, or style.

Poetry (Lyric Genre)

Typically written in verse (though poetic prose also exists), poetry is the literary genre focused on the expression of feelings and subjectivity. The poet conveys personal emotions and thoughts.

Lyric Subgenres (Historically)

Many lyric forms were originally intended to be sung, often for educated (‘cultivated’) audiences. Known compositions by specific authors include:

  • Anthem (Hymn): Expresses collective feelings (religious, patriotic, etc.) with a serious, solemn tone.
  • Ode: A lyrical poem, often addressing a specific subject (which could be serious, philosophical, or celebratory) with an elevated style, sometimes more personal than an anthem.

Drama (Theater)

Dramatic works are written in verse or prose and are intended for representation (performance). Unlike narrative, there is typically no narrator telling the story directly. Drama originated in ancient Greece, initially involving one actor and a chorus, later expanding to two and then three actors. Historically, female roles were often played by men, and actors needed skills in reciting, singing, and movement. Plays are usually structured into acts, which are further divided into scenes.

Major Theatrical Genres:

  • Tragedy: Features characters, often of high standing, facing a predetermined, usually disastrous, fate (destiny). Aims to evoke strong emotions in the audience, potentially leading to catharsis (emotional release).
  • Comedy: Often mimics everyday life with relatable characters, sometimes representing specific social classes. It has a humorous tone and typically aims to entertain.
  • Drama (as a specific genre): A mixed genre positioned between tragedy and comedy. Often features ordinary people facing serious conflicts in everyday life.

Dramatic Subgenres:

  • Melodrama: Features clearly defined good and evil characters, heightened emotion, and often incorporates music to enhance the mood.
  • Tragicomedy: Blends tragic and comic elements. Characters may be ordinary, and the ending might be serious but not necessarily catastrophic. (Note: Definitions vary).
  • Musical Theater: Works where music and singing are integral. Examples include:
    • Opera: Dialogue is primarily sung.
    • Operetta: Lighter than opera, includes spoken dialogue.
    • Zarzuela: Spanish genre alternating spoken and sung scenes.
    • Musical Comedy/Revue: Often features songs, dance, and sometimes comedic sketches.

Other Theatrical Forms:

  • Entremés (Interlude): A short, often comedic piece (in prose or verse) performed between the acts of a longer play.
  • Farce: A short, highly exaggerated comic composition, often relying on slapstick and improbable situations.
  • Sainete (Comedy Sketch): A short, humorous piece depicting popular customs and character types, often performed at the end of a main play.