Key Concepts in Masculinity Studies
1. Hegemonic Masculinity – R.W. Connell (1987, 1995)
Definition: A dominant form of masculinity that maintains male power and is considered the most socially valued. It legitimizes male dominance over women and other subordinate masculinities.
Example: In Western societies, the ideal of a strong, aggressive, heterosexual man (e.g., James Bond, elite athletes) represents hegemonic masculinity.
2. Fortifying Boundaries
Definition: The process of reinforcing social distinctions between groups, often to maintain power or privilege.
Example: The exclusion of women from elite military combat roles to maintain a masculine identity of warfare.
3. Doing Gender – Candace West & Don Zimmerman (1987)
Definition: Gender is not something we have but something we do through social interactions, reinforcing societal norms.
Example: A woman wearing makeup and high heels to a job interview to appear more “professional” based on gender expectations.
4. How Do We Do Gender in Interactions? – West & Zimmerman (1987)
Definition: Gender is performed in everyday interactions through speech, behavior, and appearance.
Example: Men taking up more space on public transport (manspreading), while women are expected to sit with their legs closed.
5. Discursive Distancing – Raewyn Connell (1995)
Definition: The way men distance themselves from “non-masculine” behaviors or identities through language and actions.
Example: A man who enjoys cooking but says, “I just grill steaks—none of that fancy chef stuff” to avoid being perceived as feminine.
6. Sex Category and How It Differs from Sex – West & Zimmerman (1987)
Definition: Sex refers to biological traits (male/female). Sex Category is the social classification of people based on perceived biological traits.
Example: A transgender man may be biologically female (sex) but is socially recognized as a man (sex category).
7. Four Types of Masculinity (Connell, 1995)
- Hegemonic Masculinity: The dominant ideal of masculinity (e.g., powerful businessmen, male athletes).
- Complicit Masculinity: Men who benefit from hegemonic masculinity without fully embodying it (e.g., suburban dads who uphold traditional gender roles).
- Subordinate Masculinity: Masculinities that are marginalized (e.g., gay men, men who show emotional vulnerability).
- Marginalized Masculinity: Masculinities oppressed due to race, class, or disability (e.g., Black men facing hypermasculine stereotypes).
8. Subordinate Masculinity – Connell (1995)
Definition: Forms of masculinity that are culturally devalued, often associated with femininity or homosexuality.
Example: A male ballet dancer might be viewed as having a subordinate masculinity because dance is feminized in Western culture.
9. Strategic Borrowing – Michael Messner (1992)
Definition: When dominant groups adopt traits from subordinate groups to maintain power while still reinforcing traditional hierarchies.
Example: Sports brands using feminist messaging to sell products, but without actually challenging gender norms in sports.
10. Defensive Masculinity – Kimmel, Connell (used in masculinity studies)
Definition: A reactionary form of masculinity where men act aggressively to reassert their dominance when they feel threatened.
Example: Men belittling feminist movements as “man-hating” to defend traditional gender roles.
11. Social Institutions – Émile Durkheim (late 19th century)
Definition: Structures in society that organize behavior and social interactions (e.g., family, education, government).
Example: Schools reinforce gender norms by treating boys as naturally better at math and girls as more nurturing.
12. Transformative Masculinity – Used in critical masculinity studies (Michael Flood, 2015)
Definition: A masculinity that seeks to challenge gender norms and promote equality.
Example: Male activists working in the feminist movement or men who advocate for paternity leave.
13. Toxic Masculinity (and Why It’s Not Used in Sociology) – Popularized by psychology and media, critiqued by Connell & Messerschmidt
Definition: A cultural concept referring to harmful masculine behaviors (e.g., aggression, suppression of emotions). Sociologists prefer hegemonic masculinity since it accounts for systemic power rather than individual traits.
Example: “Boys don’t cry” mentality leading to emotional repression.
14. Redemptive Masculinity – Eric Watkin
Definition: A type of masculinity that seeks to “redeem” male identity through positive transformation, often in religious or social movements.
Example: Former gang members advocating for non-violence and youth mentorship.
15. Battling Reflexive Practices – Pierre Bourdieu (related to reflexivity), Connell
Definition: The struggle between maintaining traditional gender roles and challenging them.
Example: A man feeling conflicted about being a stay-at-home dad in a society that values male breadwinners.
16. Crisis Tendencies – Antonio Gramsci (originally in Marxist theory, adapted for gender studies)
Definition: Structural changes in society that lead to instability or crisis in gender norms.
Example: The rise of women in leadership positions leading to fears about the “decline of men.”
17. Homo Hysteria – Eric Anderson (2009)
Definition: The fear of being perceived as gay, leading to exaggerated performances of heterosexual masculinity.
Example: A straight male athlete avoiding physical closeness with male teammates to prevent being seen as gay.