Key Concepts in Psychology and Buddhism: A Comprehensive Analysis
Abraham Maslow and Self-Actualization
Abraham Maslow (1970) investigated why most people do not reach self-actualization. He proposed several reasons for this phenomenon. Two possible reasons are explained below:
- Fear of Risk-Taking: Growth often requires taking chances. According to Maslow, individuals frequently avoid these risks because their need for security outweighs their desire for growth. In essence, people are hesitant to venture into the unknown because they feel secure in their current circumstances.
- The Jonah Complex: This term describes the fear of one’s own potential and abilities. Maslow suggested that people are often afraid of success or of realizing their full potential, which hinders the achievement of self-actualization.
Carl Rogers’ Person-Centered Therapy
What is the underlying assumption of Carl Rogers’ person-centered approach to therapy? How would Rogers implement this in therapy sessions?
The core assumption of the person-centered approach is that therapy should be nondirective. This means the therapist avoids steering the client toward specific topics. Based on the phenomenological approach, a key aspect of his theory, the client is the one who knows themselves best. Therefore, it is more crucial to understand how clients perceive their experiences than the experiences themselves.
Rogers facilitated therapy by adopting a non-authoritative stance, allowing clients to lead the sessions until they discovered solutions independently. He acted as a facilitator, demonstrating empathy, acceptance, and genuineness without redirecting the conversation.
Albert Ellis’ Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)
A fundamental assumption of Albert Ellis’ Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) is the “A-B-C Theory of Personality.” Describe this theory using an example. How would Ellis address his clients’ issues (points D and E in this theory), using the same example?
The A-B-C Theory asserts that when an activating event (A) occurs (e.g., being chased by a dog as a child), it leads to a belief (B) (e.g., all dogs are dangerous), which results in a consequence (C) (e.g., fear). This theory posits that the activating event (A) is not directly responsible for the consequence (C); rather, the belief (B) is the cause. Thus, the belief “all dogs are dangerous” leads to the consequence of fear.
Ellis would address this by implementing a disputing intervention (D). This involves rationally challenging the beliefs (B) (e.g., not all dogs are dangerous; if you are cautious, you don’t need to be afraid). By challenging and altering these beliefs, the negative consequences (C) can be mitigated, leading to an effective new philosophy (E) (e.g., not all dogs are dangerous).
Aaron Beck’s Cognitive Triad of Depression
Aaron Beck’s Depressive Cognitive Triad is also known as the cognitive distortion model of depression. According to Beck, what are the three cognitive distortions that characterize this model?
The three cognitive distortions are:
- Negative thoughts about oneself
- Negative thoughts about one’s world (current situation)
- Negative thoughts about one’s future
Dependent Origination in Zen Buddhism
Explain the concept of dependent origination in Zen Buddhism.
Dependent origination is a principle that views existence as a continuous process of change, where birth and death are not the beginning or end. Our existence is seen as a beginningless chain. It is also considered the result of an infinite web of causal conditions, as the consequences of our actions become causal conditions whose effects continue after our death. This concept does not refer to a transmigration of souls but rather to a continuing karmic process.
Nirvana in Zen Buddhism
Describe what Nirvana is in Zen Buddhism.
Nirvana is the ultimate state of mind in Buddhism. It is a mental state where all cravings, desires, and dualistic ideas have been extinguished through the complete realization of anicca (impermanence) and anatta (no-self).
Carl Rogers’ Self-Concept: Congruence vs. Incongruence
Influenced by earlier theorists like Carl Jung (shadow/persona) and Karen Horney (idealized/real self), Carl Rogers proposed that one’s self-concept can lead to either a healthy personality (congruence) or maladjustment (incongruence). Explain how Rogers’ self-concept can result in either outcome and compare his views with those of Jung and Horney.
According to Rogers, congruence occurs when a person’s symbolized experiences accurately reflect all of their actual experiences and inherent potentialities, leading to a fully functioning individual. Incongruence, on the other hand, arises when symbolized experiences do not align with actual experiences; the real self does not match the perceived self, resulting in maladjustment.
Comparison with Horney
Similarity: Both Rogers and Horney discuss the healthy (normal) individual and the maladjusted (neurotic) individual. Both use the term “real self” and have similar concepts: “idealized self” (Horney) and “perceived self” (Rogers). In both theories, the real self must coincide with the perceived or idealized self for a person to be fully functioning. Congruence, in Rogers’ terms, can be seen as the alignment between the idealized self and the real self in Horney’s theory.
Difference: Rogers focuses more on experiences, while Horney emphasizes how we are or should be.
Comparison with Jung
Similarity: An unbalanced persona in Jung’s theory can be likened to incongruence in Rogers’ theory. When a person is overly focused on their persona (social mask), they neglect other aspects of their personality. Similarly, if the shadow is not accepted, there is no congruence between the real self and the “dark self.” When both archetypes, persona and shadow, are well-developed, the self can achieve congruence.
Difference: Rogers’ concepts are based on experiences, whereas Jung’s concepts are rooted in the unconscious.
Neo-Freudians: Similarities and Differences with Freud
After discussing Sigmund Freud (Chapter 2), your author covers a range of neo-Freudians (Chapters 3-6).
Most Similar to Freud
Which neo-Freudian had views most similar to Freud? Provide two reasons.
Harry Stack Sullivan’s views are arguably the most similar to Freud’s. Two reasons for this are:
- Anxiety: Like Freud, anxiety is a central concept in Sullivan’s theory.
- Security Operations: These are similar to Freud’s defense mechanisms, used to minimize anxiety.
Most Dissimilar to Freud
Which neo-Freudian had views most dissimilar to Freud? Provide two reasons.
Alfred Adler’s views are likely the most dissimilar to Freud’s. Two reasons for this are:
- Holism: Freud divided personality into conflicting forces, whereas Adler viewed people as wholes rather than parts, hence “individual psychology.”
- Lifestyle: Adler’s theory, based on lifestyle, is more optimistic about human and societal potentialities than Freud’s.