Key Events and Treaties of Early 20th Century Europe
The Algeciras Conference (1906)
The Algeciras Conference (1906) resolved a conflict involving German Emperor Wilhelm II, who visited Tangier and championed Moroccan rights against France, accused of abusing its influence. A protectorate was established in Morocco: Northern Morocco went to Spain, while Southern Morocco fell under French protectorate.
The Balkan League and Wars
The Balkan League, a 1912 coalition of Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro, confronted Turkey to address religious and political persecution. The First Balkan War ended with the League’s victory, granting Bulgaria Aegean Sea access. The Second Balkan War (1913) saw League members clash over Bulgaria’s expansionism. Serbia, Greece, and Montenegro defeated Bulgaria, which ceded territory and lost its Aegean access.
Pan-Slavism and Yugoslavia
Pan-Slavism, a political doctrine advocating the unification of Slavic peoples, influenced the creation of Yugoslavia. This led to a forceful, totalitarian nationalist movement after World War I.
The Triple Alliance and Triple Entente
The Triple Alliance, a military pact signed in 1882 by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy on Otto von Bismarck’s initiative, aimed to isolate France. Secret agreements facilitated colonial conquests. The Triple Entente, formed in 1907, established diplomatic and military cooperation between France, Britain, and Russia, culminating in a military alliance by September 3, 1914, initiating operations against the Triple Alliance.
The Schlieffen Plan and Rationing
The Schlieffen Plan, a 1905 German military strategy by Count Schlieffen, aimed for swift French defeat via Belgium and Luxembourg. Its 1914 implementation caused international outrage. Rationing, the government allocation of limited resources and consumer goods, was common during wartime, famines, or national emergencies.
The Peace of Brest-Litovsk and Wilson’s Fourteen Points
The Peace of Brest-Litovsk (March 3, 1918) saw Bolshevik Russia cede vast territories to Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ukraine, and Belarus. U.S. President Wilson, whose tenure saw U.S. entry into World War I, proposed his Fourteen Points in January 1918 for a fair peace, advocating decolonization and fair treatment of Germany.
Post-War Treaties
The Treaty of Versailles (June 28, 1919) forced Germany to surrender its fleet, reduce its army, and cede territories. The Treaty of Saint-Germain regulated peace with Austria, preventing its union with Germany and recognizing the independence of several nations. The Treaty of Trianon dictated Hungary’s territorial losses. The Treaty of Neuilly imposed territorial losses on Bulgaria. The Treaty of Sèvres drastically reduced Turkey’s territory, granting mandates to France and Britain, and recognizing Armenian independence.
The League of Nations
The League of Nations, formed in 1919, aimed to prevent future wars through conflict resolution, disarmament, and international cooperation. Based in Geneva, it comprised an assembly, council, and various agencies.
The Russian Revolution and its Key Figures
The Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, the origin of the Communist Party, split into Bolsheviks (led by Lenin) and Mensheviks. Bloody Sunday (January 9, 1905) saw the Tsar’s army fire upon peaceful protesters. The Duma, a parliament created by Tsar Nicholas II, failed to democratize Russia. The Petrograd Soviet, a council of workers’ deputies, acted as an alternative power to the provisional government.
Nicholas II, the last Tsar, was overthrown in the February Revolution. Lenin, leader of the 1917 revolution, nationalized production and signed peace with Germany. The NEP (New Economic Policy), implemented in 1921, allowed some free trade. Stalin, succeeding Lenin, established a personal dictatorship.
Soviet Five-Year Plans
The Five-Year Plans, beginning in 1928, spurred industrial development and land collectivization.