Key Events in US and UK History: 17th-19th Centuries
Manifest Destiny in 19th Century America
During the 19th century, the US thrived to expand itself. Americans were convinced that the country should stretch across North America from the Atlantic to the Pacific. They claimed that it was a clear intention of fate, something that was meant to happen. This feeling/belief was called “Manifest Destiny.” It took the Americans a bit more than half a century; nonetheless, after 1848, they acquired the whole territory they expected from the very beginning.
The Agricultural Revolution and the Enlightenment
The Agricultural Revolution, occurring in the 18th century, was a period of significant advancements in farming techniques. These included enclosure movements, crop rotation, selective breeding, and mechanization. These changes increased agricultural productivity and were influenced by Enlightenment ideals, promoting scientific reasoning and innovation. These advancements not only transformed farming but also had profound economic implications, leading to population growth and laying the foundation for the Industrial Revolution.
The Industrial Revolution and the Enlightenment
The Industrial Revolution, occurring from the late 18th to the mid-19th century, was a transformative period marked by mechanization, the rise of factories, urbanization, and technological advancements. Enlightenment ideals of scientific inquiry, rationality, and progress played a crucial role. Enlightenment thinkers emphasized the application of scientific methods to practical problems, fostering a mindset of continuous improvement. Additionally, economic liberalism, advocated by philosophers like Adam Smith, encouraged the development of free markets and entrepreneurship, further propelling industrial growth and societal change.
The American Independence Process (Late 18th Century)
Starting with Taxation and Trade restrictions, the British government imposed various taxes on the colonies, such as the Stamp Act and the Tea Act, leading to protests. Colonists argued that they were being taxed without representation in the British Parliament.
Then, the colonists organized boycotts, protests, and acts of civil disobedience in response to oppressive British policies. Groups like the Sons of Liberty emerged to coordinate the efforts.
The American Revolution began in 1775 with Battles in Massachusetts. This marked the beginning of the Revolutionary War, fought between the colonial militias and British forces.
In 1776, the Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. This document proclaimed the colonies’ independence from British rule and articulated principles of individual rights.
The war saw major battles like Saratoga, which was a turning point leading to French support for the American cause, and Yorktown, where British General Cornwallis surrendered in 1781.
France and other European powers provided military and financial aid to the American forces, weakening British military efforts.
The Treaty of Paris ended the Revolutionary War in 1783. Britain recognized the independence of the United States and established the boundaries of the new nation, stretching from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River.
The Articles of Confederation, a loose alliance of states, initially operated under the United States after independence but proved weak and led to economic and political challenges.
The Constitution, despite opposition, was ratified in 1788, and the Bill of Rights, a set of ten amendments, was added in 1791 to protect individual liberties.
North American Colonies in the 17th Century
New England Colonies (Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut): The rocky soils and harsh winters limited agriculture. Settlers managed to grow crops for their own use. Because of their need for Independence, New Englanders became self-sufficient. New Englanders sought independence and developed communities with common areas, grazing cows on the common. They turned to the sea for wealth and built their own ships, leading to a lucrative shipbuilding industry. The colonies profited from trade with England through their shipbuilding industry. Land policy in the colonies was based on group settlement, with each town controlling land allotments and management. Towns were the church centers, and militia service, elections, and taxation were based on the town. This process allowed New Englanders to thrive and contribute to their economy.
Middle Colonies (New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware): Henry Hudson’s voyage to New York Bay in 1609 was initially for trade, but the Dutch West India Company in 1621 chartered the company to establish a government and colonize the American coast. Walloon Protestant refugees established the first permanent settlement on Manhattan Island. In 1626, Peter Minuit purchased the island and founded New Amsterdam as the seat of government. New Amsterdam became a cosmopolitan town with a lawless atmosphere. The colonies had economic advantages due to their location farther south, longer growing seasons, flatter terrain, fertile soil, and wide rivers like the Hudson and Delaware. They also had seaports, promoting trade with England. Farmers grew wheat grains and other goods, making them the “breadbasket” of the thirteen colonies. New York and Philadelphia were the largest cities.
Southern Colonies: These fell into two categories: Chesapeake colonies (Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia) and the Southernmost colonies (North and South Carolina and Georgia). The Chesapeake colonies, including Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia, primarily grew tobacco as a cash crop, selling most to England. This new product in Europe, enjoyed by many Europeans, was the largest export until the mid-1700s. The colonists spread land across creeks and rivers, tilling land in large plantations with few village centers.
George I’s Coronation in the Early 18th Century
Before the passing of Queen Anne, as she did not have any child, the first successor was her brother James, who was Roman Catholic. Parliament offered him the crown on the condition that he would change his religion to Protestant, yet, he would not accept it. He was legitimate, then he claimed the divine rights of the king. Nonetheless, the principles of representation replaced the divine rights of the king.
In consequence, the Whigs did not want him to be crowned. The King or Queen had to be Protestant. Therefore, they imposed the succession of George, king of Hanover, who was a Protestant. He was Elizabeth Stuart’s grandchild (James I daughter), thus he had a claim to the throne. The Tories were not so sure of this, as he was not a direct relative. Even though James refused to change his religion, he was a direct relative. Regardless of this, George I ended up being invited to be King of England.
The Origins of the Prime Minister Institution (Early 18th Century)
Due to the fact that King George I was King of Bohemia as well, he did not speak English. The institution of the Prime minister appeared because he had to speak Latin with Robert Walpole, minister responsible for finance. In order to explain to the King what was going on, Walpole assumed more political responsibilities. Since this situation enhanced Walpole’s power, he favored a peaceful policy. As he knew that the country was in debt, he did not want to take part in any wars, which would be expensive. He refused to try to conquer new colonies as they did not know whether they could get it or just lose money. As the Whigs did not share his view, they forced him to resign. After this, the position of Prime Minister was going to survive.
The Glorious Revolution: Causes and Events (Late 17th Century)
The Glorious Revolution took place because king James II, after becoming a widower, married a Roman Catholic and had a son with her, James. Regardless of being the youngest sibling, he would be chosen King as he was male. It did not matter that he had two older sisters, since they were women.
Parliament wanted to prevent James III from being crowned, due to the fact that they did not want a Roman Catholic King. They started a conspiracy against him. They wanted Mary to be crowned. In order to make this happen, Parliament asked William of Orange (Mary’s husband) for help: he would give them the Dutch army on the condition that he would be crowned along with Mary.
James II organized an army in order to defend himself from the Dutch. Nonetheless, as Parliament was against him, he had no resources nor money and his army was rather weak. After a year of battle, he left the country and went to France.
After her father left the country, Mary II was crowned along with her husband William III. This event was called the Glorious Revolution, owing to the fact that it was short, there were not so many victims, unlike the civil war which took place during Charles I reign, it was glorious for Parliament. Not only were they able to manipulate the line of succession, but also prevented the new rulers from claiming the divine rights of the king which said that they were divinely inspired and elected. From that moment on, England started a new institutional frame that later on would be known as a Parliamentary Monarchy.
The Restoration of the Monarchy and the Reign of Charles II (Second Half of the 17th Century)
After Cromwell’s death, Parliament noticed the Commonwealth had come to an end. The political experiment had failed. Because of this, they started to wonder what to do, until they came to the conclusion that they had to restore the monarchy. For doing so, they got in touch with Charles II, Charles I son, who was living in France. He offered a general amnesty for everyone but for twelve people: those who had signed the beheading of his father.
Parliament was quite enthusiastic about the restoration of monarchy, making decisions in religious affairs. The Church of England had always had tensions between the old and new. There was the High Church, who had a most traditional theology, and the Low Church, who were thought to be Puritans.
Charles II was believed to be the most politically minded of the Stuarts. As for foreign policies, he got married to a Portuguese princess, since they were looking for an ally after they became independent from Spain. In addition, it would be beneficial for the English traders for the Portuguese had important connections with Indian rulers.
However, Charles II did not have legitimate children. As a result, his brother James would be his heir, which was rather controversial as he was a Roman Catholic. In order to avoid any complication, Charles chose for him an Anglican wife so that his children would be Anglican as well. James had two daughters brought up in the Church of England. The older one, Mary, was expected to be the protestant leader. As Charles wanted to diminish the tensions with the Dutch (because both wanted to have the best navy), he established an alliance by marrying Mary to the Dutch leader William of Orange.
The Commonwealth: A Parliamentary Republic or Military Dictatorship?
The Commonwealth was a political experiment. Theoretically, a Parliamentary Republic, in fact, a military dictatorship. After the beheading of King Charles I, the army led by Oliver Cromwell put an end to monarchy. They had to do whatever Cromwell said. If not, they had to go home.
The Commonwealth was ruled by Puritans, who imposed severe control over people’s moral behavior. Also, the English thought that the Irish were primitive in comparison with them as well as that they depended from them. The Irish were Christians and maintained their beliefs. During the commonwealth, they rebelled; yet, they were soon defeated by the English army sent by Cromwell.
The English soldiers who had fought against the Irish were specifically told not to come back home. Instead, they were told to stay on some piece of land they were given by Cromwell. This land was called Ulster. From that moment on, Northern Ireland was Protestant and Southern Ireland Roman Catholic.
Originally, the Commonwealth was expected to replace monarchy permanently. The army wanted to maintain this system; nonetheless, after Cromwell’s death, they noticed it had come to an end. His son tried to claim his father’s position, but, as it was not a monarchy, he was prevented from it.
England and France Rivalry During the 18th Century
In the 18th century, England and France engaged in intense rivalry characterized by colonial clashes in North America, the Caribbean, and India. Their competition extended to trade dominance and naval supremacy, leading to conflicts such as the Seven Years’ War. This rivalry had far-reaching consequences, shaping colonial boundaries and trade networks, and ultimately contributing to the rise of the British Empire as a global power.