Key Factors Influencing Climate and Population Dynamics
Key Terms
Temperature: The degree of heat in the air due to solar warming. It is usually measured in degrees. Temperature data is often measured daily or yearly.
Atmospheric Pressure: The force exerted by air on the Earth’s surface. The average pressure at sea level is 1,013 millibars. Higher pressure is considered high, and lower pressure is considered low.
Isotherms: Imaginary lines used on maps to represent areas with the same temperature.
Latitude and Altitude: Coordinates used to locate a specific point on Earth. Latitude uses the Equator, tropics, and polar circles, while altitude uses meridians.
Precipitation: Water that falls from the atmosphere to the Earth’s surface, such as rain, snow, or hail.
Condensation: The process by which water vapor changes to a liquid state, forming clouds. Due to increased weight and size, it falls as rain.
Wind: Air in motion. Wind moves from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure. The intensity of the wind depends on the pressure difference between areas.
Factors Influencing Climate
Factors Influencing Temperature, Atmospheric Pressure, and Precipitation
Latitude: Temperatures are more intense at the Equator because the sun’s rays fall more perpendicularly. As we move away from the Equator, temperatures decrease because the rays fall more obliquely.
Distance to the Sea: In coastal areas, temperature differences between day and night, and between summer and winter, are smaller than in inland areas. This is because water takes longer to heat up and cool down. In summer, the sea serves as a cooling agent, and in winter, it serves as a warming agent.
Altitude: Temperature decreases by approximately 6°C for every 1,000 meters of altitude.
Climate Zones
Hot Zone
Located between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. Winter is practically non-existent. Three main climate types are distinguished: equatorial, tropical, and desert.
Temperate Zone
Located in both hemispheres, from warm regions to cold regions. Four distinct seasons are observed. Three main climate types are found: oceanic, Mediterranean, and continental.
Cold Zone
Located in the polar areas of both hemispheres and high mountain ranges. Temperatures are low, and precipitation is scarce throughout the year. Vegetation is limited to shrubs and scrubland.
Climates of Europe
Oceanic Climate
Affects the western coast of continental Europe, extending its influence to the north and northwest of Spain. It is characterized by mild temperatures throughout the year due to the proximity of the sea and abundant rainfall in all seasons due to Atlantic winds.
Mediterranean Climate
Typical of the coasts and islands located in the Mediterranean Sea (Spain, Italy, southern France, and Greece). It has moderate temperatures due to the influence of the sea. Rainfall is abundant only in spring and autumn when Mediterranean areas are affected by storms.
Continental Climate
Located in the interior regions of Europe, away from the coast. This climate is characterized by extreme temperatures due to the distance from the sea. Precipitation is scarcer than in Atlantic areas and occurs mainly in summer when hot air favors rain.
Polar and Mountain Climates
Polar Climate: Found in northern Iceland, Norway, Finland, and Russia. It has consistently very low temperatures and scarce precipitation in the form of snow.
Mountain Climate: Found only in high-altitude areas. Temperatures are low (decreasing 6°C per 1,000 meters) and precipitation is high.
Phases of Global Population Growth
Phase 1: Stability or Demographic Balance
For many centuries, the world’s population grew very slowly because, although there were many births, deaths were also excessive. Until the 20th century, life expectancy was no more than 40 years, but thereafter it began to increase.
Phase 2: Decreased Mortality
When a population has good hygiene, safe food, and easy access to medical services, many diseases such as AIDS and typhoid fever can be eradicated, leading to fewer deaths. If this occurs and the birth rate remains high, the population begins to increase.
Criteria for Defining a City
- Number of Inhabitants
- Economic Activity
Most countries determine a certain number of people to consider a settlement a city. In Spain, an urban concentration of more than 10,000 inhabitants is considered a city. According to this criterion, a city is defined by the activities that take place within it.
Urban Geometry
In almost all European cities with a long history, we can distinguish the following urban patterns:
- The Old Town: Comprised of a large number of narrow and intricate streets, usually corresponding to the historical city center.
- The Expansion: Formed by a network of wide, straight streets, due to improved planning and architecture. These areas are better prepared for transportation and often house shopping centers.
- The Suburbs: Located around the city center, these areas have been integrated into the existing urban fabric.
The Primary Sector
The primary sector includes activities related to food procurement and production, such as agriculture, livestock farming, and fishing. It also includes the extraction of some raw materials.
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The Secondary Sector: Industry
Industry is the most important activity in the secondary sector, which is responsible for transforming raw materials into consumer goods. Other activities in this sector include mining, energy production, and construction.
Raw Materials for Industry
To produce goods, industry requires raw materials. These materials, after undergoing industrial processes, are transformed into consumer goods.
Important Activities in the Secondary Sector
Mining
Most minerals are found underground, and mining is the process that allows us to extract them. There are two types of mining: open-pit mining, which is performed in open-air quarries, and underground mining. Underground mining is more difficult and dangerous as it is carried out inside mines, several meters deep.
Energy Production
Energy sources are resources from which, through proper transformation, we can obtain energy for industry, transportation, or household use. This activity can be divided into:
- Renewable vs. Non-renewable Energy Sources
- Traditional vs. Alternative Energy Sources
Traditional Energy Sources
These are the most commonly used sources, often meeting a country’s energy needs, such as oil and coal.
Alternative Energy Sources
These sources are still under development and are often difficult to exploit.
Understanding the Term “Industry”
As mentioned, industry is the set of activities that transform raw materials into consumer products. Sometimes, a material must undergo several transformations before it can be consumed or used. This is often the case for minerals, which may be transported between multiple industries. When the chain is long, some industries may merge, forming what are known as “block companies.”
Trade
Trade consists of buying and selling goods to meet the needs of the population. This activity has also contributed to the spread of cultures. In the past, bartering was used, but with the appearance of currency, goods could be assigned a more precise value.
Types of Trade
| Domestic Trade | Foreign Trade |
|---|---|
| Wholesale | Import |
| Retail | Export |
- Wholesale: Purchases of large quantities of merchandise from producers.
- Retail: Selling small quantities directly to the public.
- Import: Purchase of products from abroad.
- Export: Sales of products to foreign countries.
Terms Related to Trade
The Trade Balance
The difference between the value of a country’s exports and imports. A positive trade balance occurs when exports exceed imports, while a negative trade balance occurs when imports exceed exports.
The Balance of Payments
This balance includes all economic movements (both goods and services). The trade balance is a component of the balance of payments, measuring only the exchange of goods. A surplus occurs when revenues exceed expenditures, and a deficit occurs when expenditures exceed revenues.
Trade Balance = Exports – Imports
Capital Movement = Capital Inflow – Capital Outflow
The European Union
The Origin of the European Union: The Need for a Trade Bloc
The European Union originated from the creation of a trade bloc. To eliminate rivalry, several countries decided to associate to facilitate trade. The first association was the Treaty of Paris in 1951, establishing the ECSC (European Coal and Steel Community) formed by Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Italy, and Luxembourg. This treaty allowed for the free movement of coal and steel.
In 1957, the Treaty of Rome established the European Economic Community (EEC), expanding free movement to all types of goods, services, people, and capital. The initial members remained the same, but more countries joined in subsequent years: Denmark, Ireland, and the UK in 1973; Greece in 1981; and Spain and Portugal in 1986.
In 1992, the Maastricht Treaty formed the European Union, introducing reforms such as monetary union, increased parliamentary participation, new rights for citizens, internal solidarity policies, and a common foreign and defense policy. Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined in 1995, followed by Cyprus, Estonia, Hungary, Malta, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Slovenia in 2004.
Objectives of the European Union
- Promote economic progress: Through free movement and a common market.
- Affirm European identity internationally: Through community aid to non-European countries.
- Implement European citizenship: By establishing common rights and duties.
- Develop an area of freedom, security, and justice: Allowing citizens to move freely within member states.
- Maintain and develop a sense of community: Through the development of common laws.
The European Union Institutions
European Council (Decision-making Power)
Composed of heads of state and their foreign ministers. Its function is to define the general policy orientation and development.
Council of Ministers (Decision-making Power)
Composed of representatives of EU member states, usually foreign ministers. It makes major decisions and coordinates the actions of individual states.
European Parliament (Legislative Power)
Elected by universal suffrage, with each state choosing its MEPs. Parliament exercises legislative functions, making and modifying legislation. It also controls the Council of Ministers and the European Commission.
European Commission (Executive Power)
Proposes legal texts to Parliament and the Council of Ministers, monitors compliance with agreements and treaties, and prepares budgets. It consists of a President and Commissioners.
The Court of Justice (Judicial Power)
Ensures compliance, interpretation, and enforcement of EU laws. It is composed of one judge from each member state, renewed every five years.