Key Factors Leading to the Partition of India in 1947
Question: Explain the factors responsible for the partition of India during 1947.
Answer: The following factors were responsible for the Partition of India:
- Separate electorates granted by the British to Muslims in 1909 and expanded in 1919 (Government of India Acts of 1909 and 1919).
- Sectarian slogans used on the basis of religion in the 1920s.
- Tabligh and Shuddhi movements, music before mosques, the cow protection movement, etc.
- Communal tensions and riots that deepened the differences between the two communities.
- The outcome of the 1937 elections.
- The Muslim League’s demand for a joint government in Uttar Pradesh, which was rejected by the Indian National Congress (INC).
- Jinnah’s insistence that the League should be recognized as the sole spokesman of the Muslims, among other developments.
- Jinnah’s demand for a communal vote in the executive council.
- The Pakistan Resolution by the Muslim League in 1940.
- Congress ministries also contributed to the widening rift. The party rejected the Muslim League’s proposal for a coalition government.
- The provincial elections of 1946 and the Cabinet Mission Plan.
- Direct Action Day.
- The Partition of India and communal riots.
Mahabharata: A Colossal Epic
Question: Why is the Mahabharata considered a colossal epic?
Answer: The Mahabharata is a colossal epic running over 100,000 verses with depictions of social categories and situations. It was composed over a period of about 1,000 years (c. 500 BCE onwards). Some of the stories it contains may have been in circulation even earlier. The central story is about two sets of warring cousins.
The text also contains sections laying down norms of behavior for various social groups. Occasionally (though not always), the principal characters seem to follow these norms.
Strategies by Brahmins for Enforcing Social Norms
Question: What were the three strategies adopted by the Brahmins for enforcing social norms?
Answer: The Brahmanas evolved two or three strategies for enforcing these norms.
One was to assert that the Varna order was of divine origin. Second, they advised kings to ensure that these norms were followed within their kingdoms.
And third, they attempted to persuade people that their status was determined by birth. However, this was not always easy. So, prescriptions were often reinforced by stories told in the Mahabharata and other texts.
Grouping of New Jatis
Question: How were new jatis grouped?
Answer: Whenever Brahmanical authorities encountered new groups – for instance, people living in forests such as the nishadas – or wanted to assign a name to occupational categories such as the goldsmith or suvarnakara, which did not easily fit into the fourfold varna system, they classified them as a jati. Jatis which shared a common occupation or profession were sometimes organized into shrenis or guilds.
Rules of Marriage in Early Societies
Question: How were rules of marriage followed in early societies?
Answer: While sons were important for the continuity of the patrilineage, daughters were viewed rather differently within this framework. Marrying them into families outside the kin was considered desirable. Kanyadana, or the gift of a daughter in marriage, was an important religious duty of the father. The Brahmanas laid down certain codes of social behavior in great detail. From c. 500 BCE, these norms were compiled in Sanskrit texts known as the Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras. The most important of such works was the Manusmriti. The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras recognized as many as eight forms of marriage. Of these, the first four were considered “good” while the remaining were condemned. It is possible that these were practiced by those who did not accept Brahmanical norms.