Key Figures in Roman History: Cicero, Viriathus, Catiline
Cicero and Heraclius
Cicero, in his defense of Heraclius, stated: “I did not expect the aid of the inhabitants of Syracuse, either public or private, nor did I intend to ask for it.” While this matter was being conducted, Heraclius, who then held the position of magistrate in Syracuse, suddenly appeared. He requested that my brother and I appear before his senate. The main clause, *Cum haec agerem, subito ad me venit Heraclius* (While I was conducting these matters, Heraclius suddenly came to me), depends on the historical *cum* (*cum haec agerem*). Regarding the main clause, the subject is *Heraclius*, the verbal predicate is *venit*, complemented by an adverbial of manner *subito* (suddenly) and an adverbial of place *ad me* (to me). The subject *ego* (I) is included in the verbal desinence *agerem*, with the verb and the direct object *haec*.
Viriathus: The Lusitanian Leader
Viriathus, originally a Lusitanian shepherd, acted against the Romans in Lusitania. Initially a leader of bandits, he eventually incited many people to war, and was considered the liberator of Hispania from the Romans. He was killed by his own men after fourteen years of ravaging the provinces of Hispania. The sentence, *Postremo tantos homines concitavit ad bellum, ut adsertor contra Romanos Hispaniae putaretur* (Finally, he stirred up so many men to war that he was considered the liberator of Hispania against the Romans), is composed of a main clause (up to *concitavit*) and a subordinate consecutive clause introduced by *ut*. This combination has a correlative adverb in the main clause, *tantos* (so many). In the main clause, the subject is the third person *Viriathus*, the verb is *concitavit*, the direct object is *tantos homines*, and the adverbial of purpose is *ad bellum*. The subordinate clause, in addition to *ut*, consists of a third-person subject (again, Viriathus), a passive verb (*putaretur*), and a nominal predicate (*adsertor Hispaniae contra Romanos*). *Hispaniae* is a genitive complement of *adsertor* (objective genitive), and *contra Romanos* is an adverbial of opposition.
Catiline’s Departure from Rome
Lucius Catiline left Rome. A few days later, Catiline went to the camp of Manlius in Arretium, with the fasces and other insignia of power, while the population was previously armed. When this was known in Rome, the senate decreed that Antonius should pursue Catiline with an army. The sentence *Decernit senatus ut Antonius cum exercitu Catilinam persequi maturet* (The senate decrees that Antonius should quickly pursue Catiline with an army) is composed of a main clause where the object is a subordinate clause introduced by *ut*. *Senatus* is the subject of the main clause, and the verb is *decernit*. The subordinate clause introduced by *ut* functions as the direct object. In the subordinate clause, *Antonius* is the subject, *persequi maturet* is the verb, *Catilinam* is the direct object (it can also be considered that *persequi maturet* is the direct object, and *Catilinam persequi* is a unit), and *cum exercitu* is an adverbial of accompaniment.
Grammatical Notes: *Cum* and *Ut* Clauses
Cum:
- Translation: (As in + verb, as, verb)
- Can be:
- Preposition (+ Ablative): *”mecum”* (with me)
- Conjunction + Indicative: when (temporal)
- Conjunction + Imperfect/Pluperfect Subjunctive: *cum* historicum or *cum* causal-temporal.
Imperfect subjunctive: Verb stem + (-m, -s, -t, -mus, -tis, -nt)
Pluperfect subjunctive: Perfect infinitive (verb stem + *isse*) + personal endings (-m, -s, -t, -mus, -tis, -nt)
Ut:
- Indicative:
- Comparative: as
- Temporal: as soon as
- Subjunctive:
- Purpose clause (final): *ut* = in order that; *ne* = in order that…not
- Consecutive clause (result): Correlative adverbs (*adeo, ita, sic, tam*) translate as “so, so…that”. Negation is *ut non*. Adverbial clause (*tamen, nihilominus*) translates as “although”.