Key Historical Figures and Their Political Contexts
**Key Historical Figures and Their Political Contexts**
**Plato (Ancient Greece)**
The victory over the Persians in the *Greco-Persian Wars* fostered the flourishing of democracy under Pericles, leading to a period of political and cultural splendor. However, the *Peloponnesian War* between Athens and Sparta resulted in Sparta’s victory and the imposition of the *Thirty Tyrants* on Athens. Although Athens eventually revolted and restored democracy, it was this same democracy that condemned Socrates to death. These events fueled Plato’s criticism and distrust of the prevailing political systems. Athens subsequently fell into decay, aligning itself with the powerful polis of Sparta, and ultimately succumbed to the Macedonian Empire.
**Aristotle (Ancient Greece)**
Athens survived under the hegemony of Thebes and Sparta until it was defeated by the Macedonian Empire at the *Battle of Chaeronea*. Philip II, King of Macedonia, gradually gained control of all of Greece, including Athens. His son, Alexander the Great, established the vast Hellenistic Empire, which extended as far as India. Aristotle, a friend and educator of both Philip and Alexander, was forced to flee Athens when it fell under Macedonian rule.
**Saint Augustine (Roman Empire)**
Emperor Constantine legalized Christianity with the *Edict of Milan*. Only Emperor Julian the Apostate attempted to suppress Christianity and restore the old Roman religion. Emperor Theodosius later declared Christianity the official religion of the Empire. Upon his death, the Roman Empire was divided into East and West, inherited by his sons, Emperor Honorius. During Honorius’ reign, Rome suffered its first sack at the hands of Alaric, the Gothic king. These events profoundly influenced Saint Augustine’s *The City of God*.
**Saint Thomas Aquinas (Medieval Europe)**
The ideal of a unified Europe under a single political power (the Holy Roman Empire) and a single religion (Christianity) ultimately failed. Conflicts arose between the Holy Roman Empire and the Papacy over power. In 1239, Emperor Frederick II invaded the Papal States. In 1266, Charles I of Anjou defeated the Empire. National monarchies, such as those of France, Castile, Aragon, and England, strengthened and flourished. City-states in Northern Italy also gained prominence. The 6th, 7th, and 8th Crusades took place during this period.
Muslims faced the Holy Land.
**Descartes (Early Modern Europe)**
Absolute monarchy prevailed across Europe, exemplified by rulers like Charles I, Philip III and IV, Louis XIII, and Louis XIV. In 1617, Louis XIII launched the first offensive against the Protestants. Cardinal Richelieu was appointed as the King’s advisor in 1624. In 1635, France entered the *Thirty Years’ War*, defeating Spain in 1643. The coronation of Louis XIV took place in the same year, at the age of four. The *Peace of Westphalia* was signed in 1648, ending the *Thirty Years’ War*. France, Britain, and Spain emerged stronger, while the Holy Roman Empire declined.
**Rousseau (18th Century Europe)**
Rousseau settled in France in 1732 and used the districts of his native Switzerland as a model for the practical application of his concept of direct democracy. France was under an absolute monarchy, which would eventually be overthrown by the *French Revolution*. Louis XV proved incapable of reforming the country, although he won the *War of the Polish Succession*. However, France lost its hegemony in Europe after defeats in the *War of the Austrian Succession* and the *Seven Years’ War*. Louis XVI aided Prussia and the Americans in the *American Revolutionary War*. His weak leadership contributed to the *French Revolution*, which Rousseau’s writings had indirectly influenced, even after his death.
**Kant (18th and Early 19th Century Europe)**
The system of absolute monarchy was the prevailing political system. Frederick William I established an austere and efficient court. Frederick II “the Great”, the most important king during Kant’s lifetime, was a prototype of enlightened despotism. Thanks to victories in the *War of the Austrian Succession*, the *Seven Years’ War*, and the *War of the Bavarian Succession*, he expanded Prussian territory. He also participated in the *Three Partitions of Poland*. Frederick William II’s reign was marked by economic failure and the imposition of censorship on culture and education. Following the *French Revolution*, he initially signed an agreement in favor of Louis XVI but later signed the *Treaty of Basel*, leading to accusations of treachery by other European powers. Frederick William III was a mediocre king who maintained neutrality during the Napoleonic Wars.