Key Moments in 19th Century Spanish and American History

Posted on Jan 5, 2025 in Training and Employment Advise

The Birth of Nationalism

In the Middle Ages and the Modern Age, the word nation designated a group of people born in the same place and who were under the same monarch. In the 19th century, the term nation acquired its political origins. Since then, there have been two different conceptions of nationalism:

1. The Romantic conception defended the cultural origins of the nation. For them, a nation is a living being.
2. French theorists advocated a political conception of the nation. A nation is a voluntary decision of a group of people.

These two ideologies gave rise to two processes:

1. States implemented nationalizing policies.
2. People’s movements became nationalists.

Unifying Movements: Italy and Germany

Other nationalist movements gave rise to the union of divided populations. These were the cases of Italy and Germany. The Italian peninsula was divided into several states, some of them under foreign domination. But the existence of a common language forged a feeling of unity among Italians. The unification of Italy was led by Piedmont and culminated in 1861. In the German case, Prussia spearheaded unification. During the first half of the 19th century, economic cooperation mechanisms were established between different German states. From 1862, the King of Prussia, Wilhelm, and his Prime Minister, Bismarck, accelerated unification through military means. In 1871, the German Empire, or the Second Reich, was born and became a great power.

The Problem of Slavery and the Civil War

The United States Constitution left it to each state to abolish slavery. The states of the North and West abolished it, while those of the South maintained it. The confrontation between abolitionist and pro-slavery states intensified in the mid-19th century. In 1860, Abraham Lincoln was elected president of the country. He opposed the expansion of slavery to new territories. Shortly after, eleven southern states separated and created a Confederation. The Civil War lasted four years and ended with the victory of the North. It was a very destructive war, as modern weapons were used for the first time. The conflict caused half a million deaths and ravaged many territories.

What is Imperialism?

The term imperialism involves the extension of the domain of one country over others. The conquering country is called the metropolis, and the conquered territories are called colonies. Imperialism was a new phenomenon. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish and Portuguese empires were the most important. But in the 19th century, imperialist expansion reached its greatest intensity. The protagonists of the 19th century were Great Britain and France. The expansion of the 19th century was rapid and total: one could say that in 1800, Europe was quickly dominating the world. The military superiority of the two colonizing countries explains the conquest.

Economic Factors

Economic factors were of great importance. The colonies became markets where they had to pay customs taxes. They were also spaces where they invested their capital. Likewise, territories rich in natural resources were colonized, which provided cheap raw materials for their industries.

Political Factors

Some powers conquered places that were strategic for controlling important maritime and land routes. Territorial expansion also served to increase the prestige of a country in the world and strengthen the national pride of its inhabitants.

Demographic Factors

The population of Western countries grew heavily in the 19th century. Millions of Europeans emigrated to the colonies. Many governments encouraged and controlled these immigration flows.

The War of Independence

The Spanish monarch Carlos IV opposed the ideas of the French Revolution and, like other European monarchies, Spain entered the war against France. However, Spain was defeated and had to sign a treaty that made Spain an ally of France. In 1807, France signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau, which agreed to invade Portugal. French troops had to cross Spain to get there, but they took advantage of the situation and occupied some Spanish cities. This filled the Spanish population with discomfort. Fernando, son of Carlos IV, took advantage of the discontent and instigated the Mutiny of Aranjuez, which caused Carlos IV to abdicate in favor of his son, who became King Ferdinand VII. Napoleon took advantage of the problems of the royal family, kidnapped them in Bayonne, and forced them to abdicate in favor of his brother, José Bonaparte, who became King of Spain. On May 2, 1808, a popular uprising took place in Madrid. It was the beginning of the War of Independence. The war was a time of liberation against the French, and a civil struggle since the population was divided between pro-French and Fernandinos. The war was long and hard. The powerful guerrilla army continuously harassed the French, who were better equipped and trained. When Napoleon withdrew some troops because he needed them for the Russian campaign, the Spanish, with British allies, began a counteroffensive. In 1813, the Treaty of Valençay was signed, which ended the War of Independence and returned the crown to Ferdinand VII.

The Courts of Cadiz and the Constitution of 1812

The War of Independence also had political consequences. The absence of the royal family left a power vacuum in Spain. In the rebel areas, boards were created to organize the fight. During the war, the Central Board convened the courts. The majority of the deputies were liberals, who had a minority, the absolutists, who only wanted the return of Ferdinand VII and the maintenance of the Old Regime. The courts produced a constitution in 1812, the first in our history. It reflected the principles of political liberalism: it recognized national sovereignty and the separation of powers and established a complete statement of rights. It was a very advanced constitution. The constitution was approved on March 19, Saint Joseph’s Day, which is why it is known as La Pepa. In addition, the courts adopted many reforms that put an end to the Old Regime.

The Restoration of Absolutism (1814-1820)

In March 1814, Ferdinand VII returned to Spain. Supported by the absolutists, he repealed the constitution and the reforms approved during the war. It was a return to the Old Regime. Ferdinand VII ruled absolutely for six years. He was advised by a clique of friends. Liberals were persecuted, and many marched to exile or were imprisoned. The liberals, and some in the army, tried to restore liberalism through pronouncements.

The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)

In 1820, a pronouncement led by Colonel Riego triumphed. He proclaimed the Constitution of 1812 in Cabezas de San Juan. The king had to swear in the constitution, release political prisoners, and call elections to gather the courts. Between 1820 and 1823, the liberals restored the reforms that had been adopted in Cadiz and formed the National Militia to defend the liberal regime by arms if necessary. During the liberal government, there were various coup attempts by the absolutists, supported by the king and several European countries.

The Return of Absolutism and the Carlist War (1823-1840)

The return to power of Ferdinand VII coincided with a serious internal crisis. The treasury was without funds, and the loss of the American empire aggravated the economic crisis. The king tried to modernize the government through the creation of a council of ministers. The liberals, pursued by the regime, staged several pronouncements. To this situation was added the dynastic problem. Due to the Salic Law, which did not allow women to rule in Spain, and since Ferdinand VII did not have male children, he promulgated a rule, the Pragmatic Sanction, annulling the Salic Law so that his daughter Isabel could reign. When Ferdinand VII died in 1833, his widow took over the government. On the other hand, Don Carlos proclaimed himself King of Spain. In this way, the First Carlist War began. The war was also an ideological confrontation between two sides: the liberals and the Carlists. The war lasted seven years and ended with the Carlist defeat. The Embrace of Vergara put an end to the war, although the conflict remained alive throughout the 19th century.

The Triumph of Liberalism (1833-1844)

During the minority of Isabel II, a period of regencies took place, in which the liberal regime was established in Spain. The first regent was Maria Cristina, Isabel’s mother. Her regency coincided with the Carlist War and, therefore, she allied herself with the liberals. The liberals were divided into two groups: the moderates and the progressives. In the following years, with Mendizábal at the head of the government, steps were taken to abolish the remains of the Old Regime, such as the confiscation of church property. The highlight was the issuance of the Constitution of 1837. In 1840, due to the resignation of Maria Cristina, General Espartero assumed the regency. In 1843, faced with a crisis, Espartero resigned, and Isabel II was proclaimed queen at the age of 13.

The Moderate Decade (1844-1854)

During the first ten years of her reign, Isabel II only entrusted the government to the moderates. The period was characterized by the conservatism of its strongman, General Narváez, who presided over several governments. In 1845, a new constitution was approved. The new civil and criminal codes were organized in a centralist way. The laws were matched in all territories, and the tax reform equalized taxes. From the progressives, the Democratic Party split, which demanded universal suffrage, and the Republicans, in favor of the Republic. In 1854, the pronouncement of Vicálvaro took place. It was led by Leopoldo O’Donnell, with the support of some moderates and progressives, and it put an end to this stage.

The Progressive Biennium (1854-1856) and the Liberal Union

After the pronouncement of Vicálvaro, power passed to the progressives, still led by Espartero, and they were supported by a centrist party sponsored by O’Donnell called the Liberal Union. The new government launched a process of secularization and approved the Railway Law again. It was a period marked by the economic crisis and social and peasant protests. This agitation was the reason that the queen used to remove the progressives from the government.

The First Republic

Faced with the difficulties of finding a king, the courts proclaimed the First Republic. The Republic was born with serious problems. Most of the political groups were monarchists, and the Republicans themselves were torn between wanting a federal republic and a unitary one. A reflection of this division was the cantonalist movement. In addition, the Republic had to face the outbreak of the Third Carlist War and the Cuban War. Faced with a chaotic situation, General Pavía staged a coup and dissolved the courts in January 1874. After the coup, General Serrano ruled for almost a year. He maintained republican forms, but not the spirit of reform and modernization that the Republic represented. For this reason, no one opposed when, in December 1874, a new coup restored the Bourbon dynasty.

Vocabulary

• Pro-French: Spaniards who recognized José Bonaparte as king.
• Fernandinos: Spaniards who remained faithful to Ferdinand VII.
• Guerrillas: Groups of armed civilians who harassed Napoleonic troops and hindered their control of the territory.
• Pronouncements: A form of military uprising typical of the 19th century. Its objective was to change a certain political system.
• Holy Alliance: Alliance of several European kings to confront governments with liberal tendencies.
• Confiscation: Confiscation and sale by the state of goods from other institutions.
• Regency: When a monarchy is not ruled by the legitimate king due to his incapacity, minority of age, or absence.
• Cantonalist Movement: Movement that sought the creation of sovereign states and provinces within Spain.