Key Philosophical and Anthropological Concepts
Key Definitions
Determinism: A philosophical concept asserting that all events are inevitably determined, thus denying free will.
Fixism: The theory that species have remained unchanged over time, without evolution.
Creationism: A theory based on Genesis, proposing two main ideas:
- The separate and final creation of all species.
- The creation of man in God’s image.
Ethnocentrism: The practice of judging other cultures based on one’s own, assuming one’s culture is superior, which historically led to colonialism and imperialism.
Universalism: The doctrine that rejects ethnocentrism and seeks to prevent the imposition of one culture on others.
Moral Relativism: The view that morality is not based on absolute standards, but rather on context, culture, etc.
Cultural Relativism: The position that it is impossible to evaluate different cultures, as each is explained by its own internal logic.
Paradox: A conclusion that contradicts common sense.
Ethical Theories
Moral Intellectualism: The theory that knowing the good leads to doing the good; immoral actions stem from ignorance.
Eudaemonism: Theories that consider happiness as the purpose of human life.
Hedonism: The theory that identifies pleasure as the ultimate goal of happiness.
Stoicism: Doctrines that advocate indifference to external pleasures and pains.
Ethical Natural Law: Any ethical theory that upholds the existence of a moral law determining right and wrong.
Emotivism: The theory that moral judgments arise from emotions.
Utilitarianism: Theories similar to hedonism and eudaemonism, arguing that actions and rules should be judged by their utility in maximizing happiness or pleasure.
Darwinian Theory
The 1859 publication of Origin of Species challenged fixist theories. Darwinian theory had three main theses:
- Species evolve through transformations, with all species descending from prior ones through gradual changes.
- Natural selection is the principle explaining development, where only the most effective changes are passed on.
- Humans descend from ancient primates, like other animals.
Paleontology has since supported this theory.
Gregor Mendel’s theory stated that hereditary traits are determined (now all).
Natural selection + mutationist doctrines = synthetic or neodarwinist theories.
Hominization
Key changes in hominids include:
– Upright Position: Bipedal walking led to anatomical changes, a wider field of view, and the freeing of upper extremities.
– Liberation of Upper Extremities: Allowed hands to specialize, replacing the mouth as a tool, and enabling the invention of instruments, facilitated by brain development.
– Brain Development: Possibly caused by the freeing of the hand, resulting in:
- Technical Capacity: The ability to make and use tools to modify the environment.
- Nominal Capacity: The ability to create and express through symbols.
Dynamics of Culture
There are 5 types of cultural transformations:
– Cultural Mutation: The introduction of new or modified existing cultural elements.
– Cultural Transmission: The transfer of culture vertically (parent to child) or horizontally (within the same generation).
– Cultural Diffusion: The transfer of elements from one culture to another and how they are adopted.
– Cultural Drift: When a culture fragments into different groups or subsets.
– Natural Selection: When improvements are made by group members.