Key Sociological Concepts & Theories: A Comprehensive Guide
People/Theories
Karl Marx (Conflict Theory)
Marx believed that societal conflicts, especially between the bourgeoisie (wealthy) and the proletariat (working class), shape society. He posited that these conflicts drive social change and can lead to revolution.
Emile Durkheim (Functionalism)
Durkheim viewed society as interconnected parts working together for stability. Each part has a function, and societal harmony exists when these functions operate smoothly.
Max Weber (Meaning/Rationalization)
Weber focused on how individuals interpret their actions and how rationality influences social structures. He explored how logical reasoning impacts societal organization.
Herbert Blumer (Symbolic Interactionism)
Blumer emphasized symbolic interaction, where meaning is created through symbols like language. He also examined how group positions influence interactions and identities.
C. Wright Mills (Sociological Imagination)
Mills introduced the sociological imagination—connecting personal experiences to broader social forces. This concept helps understand how societal structures influence individual lives.
John Maynard Keynes (Macroeconomics)
Keynes advocated government intervention (spending and fiscal policies) to stimulate economic growth and reduce unemployment during downturns.
Neoliberalism (Hayek & Friedman)
Neoliberalism promotes free markets, limited government, and individual entrepreneurship. Hayek and Friedman argued that less government intervention leads to greater efficiency and growth.
Lee Atwater (“Southern Strategy”)
Atwater, a political strategist, developed the “Southern Strategy.” This aimed to attract white Southern voters by appealing to racial biases using coded language.
Thorstein Veblen (“Conspicuous Consumption”)
Veblen coined “conspicuous consumption,” describing using wealth to display social status. Luxury goods become a means of showcasing wealth, not just utility.
W.E.B. DuBois (Double-Consciousness)
DuBois explored “double-consciousness,” the internal conflict of marginalized groups (especially African Americans) navigating a devaluing society. The “veil” symbolizes this separation.
Marcel Mauss (“The Gift”)
Mauss studied gift-giving and its role in creating social bonds. He argued that gifts carry expectations and obligations, strengthening community relationships.
Structure vs. Agency
This debate contrasts social structures (influencing behavior) with individual agency (capacity for independent action). It explores how societal structures and personal choices interact.
General Concepts
Poverty Rate (and Measurement)
The poverty rate, the percentage of people below a basic living income level, is measured using income thresholds based on family size and location.
Socialization
Socialization is the process of learning and internalizing cultural values, norms, and behaviors. It shapes individual identities and social skills throughout life.
The Enlightenment
The 17th-18th century Enlightenment emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism of authority. It promoted liberty, democracy, and scientific inquiry.
Modernity
Modernity encompasses cultural, social, and economic changes from industrialization, including technological advancements, urbanization, and individualism.
The Discovery of the Individual
This concept highlights the emergence of individual identities and rights, emphasizing personal freedom and self-expression.
Social Facts
Social facts are societal norms, values, and institutions that influence individual behavior. They exist externally and shape social interactions.
Sui Generis (Arising of Itself)
“Sui generis” means unique and independent. Society has its own characteristics and dynamics, not reducible to individuals.
There Is No N=1
Sociological research requires studying groups and patterns, not single cases (N=1), to understand social phenomena.
Sociological Imagination
The sociological imagination connects personal experiences to larger societal structures and historical contexts.
“Personal Troubles” vs. “Public Issues”
This distinction separates individual problems (“personal troubles”) from broader societal problems (“public issues”).
Relative Deprivation
Relative deprivation is feeling worse off compared to others, regardless of absolute living conditions, potentially fueling resentment and social movements.
Status
Status is an individual’s social standing, either ascribed (inherited) or achieved (earned), influencing interactions.
Status Inconsistency
Status inconsistency occurs when an individual holds conflicting social statuses (e.g., high-status job, low-income family).
Class
The Great Compression/The New Gilded Age
- Great Compression (1930s-1970s): Decreased income inequality due to strong unions, worker-supporting policies, and economic growth.
- New Gilded Age (Recent Decades): Increased income inequality due to globalization, technology, weakened unions, and tax policies favoring the rich.
Financialization of the Economy
The increasing importance of financial markets and motives in the economy, with corporate profits driven by financial activities.
“Shareholder Capitalism”
Prioritizing maximizing shareholder value, often at the expense of employees, consumers, or the environment.
Stratification
Society’s division into layers based on wealth, power, education, or status, leading to unequal resource access.
Urbanization
Increased city populations due to rural-to-urban migration, driven by industrialization and economic opportunities.
Changing Unionization Rates
Drastic decline in private sector union membership (35% in 1950s to 6% today) due to anti-union policies, globalization, and automation.
The Capital-Labor Accord
Mid-20th century agreement between companies, workers, and government for stable wages and job security, facilitated by strong unions.
Keynesian Economics
Government intervention in the economy, especially during recessions, to stimulate demand and prevent unemployment.
Stagflation (Causes and Consequences)
Simultaneous high inflation and unemployment, occurring in the 1970s due to oil shocks and economic policies, causing stagnation.
Deindustrialization
Decline of manufacturing industries due to globalization, technology, or outsourcing.
“Trickle-Down” Economics (Reaganomics)
Reducing taxes on businesses and the wealthy to stimulate investment and job creation, with benefits theoretically “trickling down.”
US Wealth Gap
The growing wealth divide between the richest and poorest Americans.
The PATCO Strike (1981)
Air traffic controllers’ strike, resulting in mass firings and a blow to unions, signaling a shift away from labor-friendly policies.
The Financial Crisis of 2008
Caused by risky mortgages, deregulation, and speculation, leading to bank failures, recession, and unemployment.
Moral Hazard
Taking risks knowing others will bear the consequences, such as companies taking excessive risks expecting bailouts.
Welfare Reform (AFDC to TANF)
1996 welfare reform introduced work requirements and time limits on assistance to reduce government dependency.
Housing Projects and Section 8
Government-funded housing projects and Section 8 rent vouchers aim to provide affordable housing for low-income families.
Great Society Program (1960s)
President Johnson’s programs aimed to eliminate poverty and racial injustice, including Medicare, Medicaid, and education reform.
Race/Ethnicity
Achieved vs. Ascribed Stratification
- Achieved: Earned social position (e.g., class).
- Ascribed: Assigned social position at birth (e.g., caste).
Race as a Social Construct
Race is a social concept, not biologically determined, used to categorize people based on physical characteristics.
Race vs. Ethnicity
- Race: Based on perceived physical traits.
- Ethnicity: Based on shared cultural traits.
Racism vs. Discrimination
- Racism: Systemic advantage/disadvantage based on race.
- Discrimination: Unfair treatment based on characteristics like race.
The Great Northern Migration (1916-1970)
Mass movement of African Americans from the South to the North seeking better opportunities and escaping segregation.
Group Threat
Dominant group hostility towards a growing group perceived as threatening their status.
Intersectionality
Overlapping systems of discrimination based on multiple identities (race, gender, class).
Color-Blind Racism
Ignoring racial inequalities by pretending race doesn’t matter.
The “New South”
Post-Civil War Southern transformation with industrialization and modernization, but persistent racial and economic inequality.
White Privilege
Unearned advantages white people receive due to their race.
The Southern Strategy
Appealing to white voters’ racial biases for political gain.
Mass Incarceration
Large-scale imprisonment disproportionately affecting minorities.
The War on Drugs
Policies increasing law enforcement and incarceration, targeting minority communities.
Prisons as “New Welfare State”
Prisons replacing social welfare programs for marginalized populations.
Employment Outcomes for Ex-Cons
Studies showing racial discrimination in hiring, disadvantaging black ex-convicts.
Sex vs. Gender
- Sex: Biological characteristics (male/female).
- Gender: Socially constructed roles and identities.
Intersex
Individuals with sex characteristics not fitting typical male/female definitions.
Gender Roles
Societal expectations about behavior based on assigned gender.
Gender Socialization
Learning gendered behaviors and attitudes from childhood.
Patriarchy
Male-dominated social system.
The Glass Ceiling
Invisible barrier preventing women and minorities from career advancement.
Testosterone and Male Behavior
Testosterone amplifies existing social behaviors, not directly causing aggression.
Feminization of Labor
- Women’s increasing participation in low-wage jobs.
- Traditionally male jobs becoming lower paid as more women enter.
“Doing Gender”
Actively performing gender roles through behavior and appearance.
Implicit Bias
Unconscious attitudes affecting decisions and perpetuating discrimination.
Methods
Qualitative vs. Quantitative Methods
- Qualitative: Non-numerical data, understanding meaning (interviews, focus groups, ethnography).
- Quantitative: Numerical data, quantifying variables (surveys, experiments, statistical analysis).
Ethnography
Immersive research method observing people in natural settings.
Epistemology
Study of knowledge and how we know what we know.
Experimental Audit
Testing real-world outcomes to detect discrimination.
Statistical Bias
Systematic errors in data leading to incorrect conclusions.
Statistical Significance
Result unlikely due to chance.
Inductive vs. Deductive Reasoning
- Inductive: Specific observations to general conclusions.
- Deductive: General theory to specific observations.
Point of Saturation
In qualitative research, when no new information emerges from data.