Knowledge, Power, and Society: Exploring Key Concepts in Philosophy and Politics
Knowledge, Opinion, and Belief
There are two types of knowledge that can be intertwined, though not always: disinterested knowledge, which seeks to understand reality as it is, and expertise, which seeks practical application of knowledge. Throughout history, our understanding of knowledge has evolved. Philosophy aims to be a “friend” of knowledge, combating its main enemies: ignorance, opinion, and belief.
Ignorance, the most significant enemy, is a lack of knowledge or incorrect understanding. Opinion is a judgment without a foundation in knowledge. Belief is a personal attachment to an idea, theory, statement, or dogma based solely on that attachment.
The Synthetic Theory of Evolution
To fully explain Darwin’s theory, we must understand the origins of variations between individuals and the processes of speciation. The modern evolutionary synthesis explains evolutionary phenomena through small, random genetic changes (mutations) acted upon by natural selection.
Evolution is a two-stage process: the first involves the origin of heritable variation (including mutation and sexual reproduction), and the second involves natural selection. Two other factors introduce variability in a population’s genetic makeup:
- Migration: Animals migrating between regions cause gene flow, mixing genes and altering their proportions.
- Genetic Drift: The proportion of genes in a population can vary due to random chance events.
Emic and Etic Perspectives
Emic: This perspective involves remaining within a culture (enculturation) and valuing its practices and beliefs as correct and legitimate.
Etic: This perspective involves observing a culture from the outside while striving for objectivity.
Political Power
Organizing coexistence requires decisions that impact the entire community, often conflicting with individual desires. These decisions are guided by norms in all areas of human action, especially those with political dimensions. Politics is an activity where community members decide how to organize their coexistence. Decisions made are binding for all individuals and cannot be challenged by individual power.
Michel Foucault examined the nature of power, arguing that it’s not solely held by the state or privileged classes but is dispersed throughout various aspects of life. Power is a relationship of forces, and the power that concerns us is that used to organize public life. This involves controlling the community, and in democratic states, this power must be legitimate.
The Democratic State
In a democratic state, citizens ideally participate actively in government (direct democracy). However, due to the scale of modern societies, they cede this right to freely elected representatives (representative democracy). The state holds power, but it belongs to the people, making sovereignty popular. This means accepting the political equality of all citizens.
Democracy emerged as a transformation of liberalism after World War II, leading governments to consider not only individual rights but also collective ones.
Naturalistic Theories of Society
Naturalistic theories argue that society precedes the individual, meaning society is necessary for individual life. Two prominent philosophers support this view:
- Plato: He believed humans are insufficient on their own, unable to secure material necessities or fully grasp spiritual goods. Therefore, they must unite with others.
- Aristotle: While acknowledging the individual, family, and village as pre-state entities, he argued that they are not naturally self-sufficient. Society provides the means for human happiness. A person outside society is not truly human but rather a beast or a god.
In the Middle Ages, Thomas Aquinas was a key figure, viewing society as natural and individuals needing to achieve fulfillment by following state-dictated laws. In the modern era, rationalist thinkers criticized the idea of society originating from a social contract. They believed humans are naturally inclined to form groups due to instinct. Contemporary philosophers continue to defend the natural character of human sociality.