Labor Movement and Socialism: A Historical Journey
1. The Labor Movement: Beginnings to 1848
Poor working conditions (hard labor, low wages) and a low quality of life (lack of essential services) led workers to question their circumstances and initiate uprisings. One form of protest, known as Luddism, involved the destruction of machines, which workers blamed for their plight. Luddism spread across Europe during the first quarter of the 19th century. In response to these conditions, workers formed mutual aid associations, known as unions, which clandestinely supported sick or striking workers. By 1820, unions were widespread, leading to the creation of worker association laws and the rise of a political perspective within the labor movement.
This period also saw the emergence of ideological approaches:
- Utopian Socialism: Led by thinkers like Owen and Fourier, this approach believed that improving workers’ quality of life would create a society based on democratic principles and social equality in education. Marx and Engels criticized this approach as idealistic.
- Scientific Socialism: Developed by Marx and Engels, who analyzed industrial society and published The Communist Manifesto in 1848. They believed economics drove history and that individuals should be viewed as part of a group. They argued that history has always involved two classes: the exploited and the exploiters. Marx and Engels advocated for class struggle, where the proletariat would establish a dictatorship of the proletariat, ultimately leading to communism and a classless society.
2. Anarchy
Particularly present in rural, less industrialized areas, anarchy is based on individualism, the absence of authority, social solidarity, and criticism of private property. Its precedents can be found in the Greek Cynics, who isolated themselves from what they considered a corrupt society, advocating for a society based on knowledge and education. These ideas were revived in the mid-19th century by Proudhon. Bakunin, a key figure in anarchism, promoted a radical approach aimed at destroying the state and creating a new society.
3. The First International (1864-1881)
In 1864, the International Workingmen’s Association (IWA) was founded, uniting major European trade unions and workers. Its goal was to coordinate actions and demands. Marx led its General Council, focusing on the emancipation of the working class and socialism. Disagreements arose between Marx and Bakunin. Marx believed the proletariat should conquer and transform the state, while Bakunin prioritized its destruction.
The Franco-Prussian War presented a challenge, as workers on both sides were urged not to participate in a conflict that benefited the middle class. The collapse of Napoleon III’s Second Empire led to the Paris Commune, which established a republic with social democratic and anarchist elements. However, the arrival of Prussian forces ended the Commune. This defeat outlawed the IWA and caused the final split between Marxists and anarchists, with the former supporting the formation of socialist political parties and the latter forming the anti-authoritarian anarchist International.
4. Unions and Workers’ Parties (1881-1914)
The development of socialist political parties in Europe was gradual and complex. The German SPD, founded in 1875, focused on political struggle and parliamentary action to achieve universal suffrage, direct taxation, and public health and education. The Labour Party in England, founded in 1905 and consolidated in 1918, became a significant force in the House of Commons. In Spain, Pablo Iglesias founded the Marxist-leaning Socialist Party in 1879, but it didn’t gain parliamentary representation until 1910. The UGT union, affiliated with the PSOE, was created in 1888.
As socialist parties gained ground, parliamentary action became favored over revolutionary action. Syndicalism, represented by the French CGT and Spanish CNT, emerged as a form of anarchism opposing terrorist violence.
5. The Second International
Founded in Paris in 1889, the Second International initially emphasized ideological homogeneity, consisting solely of socialist parties. Its achievements included the 8-hour workday, the abolition of child labor, condemnation of war, and encouraging worker affiliation with political parties. It established May 1st as a holiday and adopted an anthem. It debated and supported revisionism, criticized colonialism, and denounced war. However, the issue of war ultimately led to its division. With the outbreak of World War I in 1914, socialist parties prioritized national loyalty over proletarian solidarity. The Russian Revolution in 1917 caused the Second International to fracture into irreconcilable factions: patriots, pacifists, and reformists/revolutionaries.