Land Use, Social Structures, and Cultural Diversity in Medieval Spain
Land Use, Ownership, and Social Organization in Medieval Spain
From the late eleventh to the early sixteenth century, Christian Spain underwent significant political, military, economic, and cultural transformations. The acquisition of land, whether through rapid, spontaneous occupation or royal encouragement, varied regionally. Different systems ensured the settlement of new territories:
- In Hispanic domains, land was granted to the first settlers (aprissio).
- In Aragon, particularly the Ebro Valley, large estates worked by Moorish laborers paid rent to the nobility.
- In Valencia and Murcia, land was distributed to those who participated in the conquest.
- Castilian models varied: in the Douro Valley, land was rapidly distributed among free peasants; between the Douro and Tagus rivers, councils divided land; between the Tagus and Guadalquivir, military orders controlled land use but not ownership; and in the Guadalquivir Valley, large estates were formed through allotments.
Social relations were defined by the division between lords and vassals, creating a stratified society:
- The first estate comprised the landowning nobility.
- The second estate included the clergy, whose hierarchy overlapped with the high nobility.
- The third estate encompassed the peasantry and city dwellers.
Medieval society was further divided into natural populations (Christians) and subject populations (Moors and Jews), who faced discrimination and persecution.
Cultural Diversity: Christians, Muslims, and Jews
Medieval Spain was a melting pot of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish cultures:
- During the early Middle Ages (8th-10th centuries), Muslim culture, more advanced and open than its Christian counterpart, influenced Mozarabic monasteries, which translated Arabic works on mathematics, astronomy, and medicine into Latin.
- In the High Middle Ages (11th-12th centuries), the influence of Romanesque art and epic poetry crossed the Pyrenees. Latin ceased to be the sole spoken language, though it remained the written language. This period saw the establishment of the first School of Translators in Toledo and the emergence of universities in Palencia and Salamanca.
- In the Late Middle Ages (13th-15th centuries), Muslim influence continued, alongside a growing Jewish influence marked by the development of biblical studies. Romance languages developed, with Castilian, under Alfonso X, becoming the official language. The second School of Translators in Toledo fostered cultural exchange, and new universities flourished.
The Habsburg Political Model and the Union of Kingdoms
Under Philip II, the Spanish Habsburg Empire’s diverse kingdoms and territories, previously independent monarchies, were unified under a single king. In 1561, Madrid became the capital, leading to the Castilianization of institutions and kingdoms. Governance was complex:
- The Council of State, established by Charles I, advised the king on all matters and was composed of members from various territories. Philip II rarely convened it.
- Other councils managed territorial affairs (Castile, Aragon, Italy, the Indies, Flanders, and Portugal), alongside the Inquisition, the treasury, and military orders.
- Viceroys and governors represented the king in his absence (except in Navarre, Aragon, Italy, and America, where governors were appointed).
- Ministers assisted the king in daily governance. Under Philip II, Gonzalo Pérez and his son Antonio were prominent ministers.
- Courts, assemblies of nobles, clergy, and city representatives, handled tax matters.
- Municipalities were controlled by the nobility and the business elite, with mayors serving as representatives in Castile.
Ultimately, all power rested with the monarch, whose absolute authority was consolidated under Charles I and Philip II.