Language Acquisition Theories and Classroom Strategies

Posted on Jan 11, 2025 in Primary Education

Language Acquisition Theories

Piaget: Learning as action: children interact with the world around them and learn when they take action to solve problems. Knowledge is actively constructed. Early on children interact and solve problems with concrete objects; later on they progress towards mental interaction. Action is fundamental to cognitive development. Two ways of developing as a result of action: Assimilation, when an action takes place without causing any change in the child. Accommodation, when the child adjusts to the features of the environment. Children actively try to make sense of the world: children want to know. They have purposes and intentions. They want to do. Children are active sense-makers, although they lack experience, they constantly try to make sense of the actions of others.

Vygotsky: Development takes place in a social context: Adults mediate the world for children and make it accessible to them. Intelligence is seen as what a child can do with skilled help. Different children make use of adults’ help in different ways. Zone of proximal development: activity in an area of development just beyond the child’s current stage. At first children rely on the social context, but after repetition of a type of situation, they are able to shift towards independent action. Internalisation: language is first used meaningfully in class, later transformed and internalised as the child’s own skill and knowledge.

Bruner: In his constructivist theory he upholds that learning consists of constructing new ideas based on the learner’s previously acquired knowledge. Learning= building upon what one already knows. Scaffolding is the action taken by a parent or teacher supporting a child’s development. Scaffolds are intentional, temporary and flexible structures created to adapt to the learner’s development. They facilitate the learner with the space to take initiative. Scaffolding consists of helping children while they carry out an activity, by attending to what is relevant, adopting useful strategies, remembering the whole task and goals.

Effective Teaching Practices

For young students, learning is still a question of experiencing rather than committing information to memory. Teachers need to provide our students with the possibility of experiencing to ensure successful learning. Children do not distinguish learning situations from non-learning. Young students really need to get involved in what they’re doing to be interested. The order of acquisition is usually delivered in the classroom following this order:

Listening: Present the language orally; the student listens.
Speaking: Then ask the children to reproduce this language orally; the child speaks.
Reading: Then present language in the written form; the child reads.
Writing: Finally ask them to reproduce this language in a written form; the child writes.

Features of Effective Speech

Here are some features of this kind of speech:

A somewhat slower rate of speech (still with the normal rate of speech for that speaker, but at the lower end of the range).
More distinct pronunciation (not a distorted pronunciation, however, which actually changes the sounds of the language). For example, most American speakers of English pronounce the “tt” in the word letter as if it were spelled “dd.” When asked to pronounce clearly, they often change their pronunciation of the sound to “tt,” thus distorting the language through an attempt to pronounce it “accurately.” Such distortions are not in the long-range best interests of the learner.
Shorter, less complex sentences.
More rephrasing and repetition.
More frequent meaning checks with the listener to make sure that he or she understands.
Use of gesture and visual reinforcement.
Greater use of concrete referents.
Scaffolding. The teacher surrounds the learner with language, allowing the student to be a participant in dialogue. In early language acquisition, the teacher actually provides both verbal parts of a conversation. Later, the teacher might embellish one- and two-word responses by the learner into complete utterances in a natural, conversational manner, at the same time modeling extended discourse and providing meaningful listening experiences. Students will become capable of taking over increasing responsibility as participants in the conversation.

Essential Concepts of Second Language Acquisition for Teachers

Characteristics of Young learners
Second-language acquisition proceeds according to predictable stages.
The degree of acquisition is correlated with the time available for instruction.
Children acquire language best in a low-anxiety environment.
Culture is closely related to language and is an essential component of instruction.
Meaning can be communicated without the use of English (or L1).
Children acquire language through a focus on meaning rather than on grammar.
Children involve many senses in the acquisition process.
Meaning is established, in a school setting, through thematic, integrative approaches incorporating the content of the general curriculum.
Meaning is established through visual cues.
Children acquire language through extended listening experiences and negotiation of meaning.
A relevant, meaningful context is necessary for effective language acquisition.
The teacher can use a variety of techniques to make the language understandable to children (comprehensible input).

Classroom Management

Common classroom management areas include:

Activities

Setting up activities
Giving instructions
Monitoring activities
Timing activities (and the lesson as a whole)
Bringing activities to an end

Grouping and Seating

Forming groupings (singles, pairs, groups, mingle, plenary)
Arranging and rearranging seating
Deciding where you will stand or sit
Reforming class as a whole group after activities

Authority

Gathering and holding attention
Deciding who does what (i.e., answer a question, make a decision, etc.)
Establishing or relinquishing authority as appropriate
Getting someone to do something

Critical Moments

Starting the lesson
Dealing with unexpected problems
Maintaining appropriate discipline
Finishing the lesson

Tools and Techniques

Using the board and other classroom equipment or aids
Using gestures to help clarity of instructions and explanations
Speaking clearly at an appropriate volume and speed
Use of silence
Grading complexity of language
Grading quantity of language

Working with People

Spreading your attention evenly and appropriately
Using intuition to gauge what students are feeling
Eliciting honest feedback from students
Really listening to students.

Classroom decisions and actions are also greatly determined by your own attitudes, intentions, beliefs and values. What do you believe about learning? What is important for you in learning? What is your genuine feeling towards your students? For example, you may ask a student to write on the board (rather than doing it himself). This decision may have grown from your intention to involve students more in the routine duties of the class. This may itself have grown from your belief that trusting your students more and sharing some responsibility with them is a useful way of increasing their involvement in the learning process.

Classroom Interaction

Some common types of student grouping in the classroom include:

whole class working together with you;
whole class moving around and mixing together as individuals (a ‘mingle’);
small groups (three to eight people);
pairs;
individual work.

In any one lesson, you may include work that involves a number of these different arrangements. Varying groupings is one way of enabling a variety of experiences for the learners. In this section, we examine the rationale for making use of pairs and small groups as well as whole-class work. There are some suggestions and guidelines for maximising useful interaction in class.

Teacher Talk and Student Talk

The language classroom is rich in language for learners, quite apart from the language that is the supposed focus of the lesson. Students learn a lot of their language from what they hear you say: the instructions, the discussions, the asides, the jokes, the chit-chat, the comments. Having said that, it would be unsatisfactory if your talk dominated the lesson to the exclusion of participation from as many learners as possible.

Seating

However your classroom is laid out and whatever kind of fixed or moveable seating you have, it is worth taking time to consider the best ways to make use of it.

What different seating positions are possible without moving anything?
Are any rearrangements of seats possible?
Which areas of the room are suitable for learners to stand and interact in?
Is there any possibility that the room could be completely rearranged on a semi-permanent basis to make a better language classroom space?

Important considerations are:

Can learners comfortably work in pairs with a range of different partners?
Can learners comfortably work in small groups with a range of other learners?

For each activity you do in class, consider what grouping, seating, standing arrangements are most appropriate. Changing seating arrangements can help students interact with different people, change the focus from you when appropriate and allow a range of different situations to be recreated within the classroom, as well as simply adding variety to the predictability of sitting in the same place every time.

Games

Children enjoy constructive play and games. They are not only motivating and fun but can also provide excellent practice for improving pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and the four language skills. For very young children games also provide an important link between home and school which helps to make them feel more secure and confident. They usually form an integral part of language programmes and published ELT materials for young learners. Chunking of language provides useful pronunciation practice (as long as a good model has been provided). The language needed for games may be used as part of an activity where the focus is on getting something done, rather than practising language for its own sake. Language may be practised together with a wider educational or conceptual goal, e.g. using reading games to reinforce vocabulary as well as the concept of classifying, and learning more about a topic. The language in a game may encourage more creative use of language in addition to simple repetition. The pupils may be involved in informal language analysis and noticing of language items or rules through problem-solving and puzzles. Games help to make learning more memorable and accessible by using as many approaches as possible, such as mime and movement, use of colour and patterns, or personalization.

Songs

Children love songs, rhymes and chants and their repetitive nature and rhythm make them an ideal vehicle for language learning. Their usefulness is recognized by their inclusion in most language programmes and every primary school teacher will have their favourites. This chapter will consider the rich potential of traditional songs, rhymes and chants that have stood the test of time.

A Linguistic Resource

They allow new language to be introduced and structures and vocabulary to be reinforced and recycled
They present familiar language in new and exciting forms and in a rich, imaginative context
They provide for lots of natural and enjoyable repetition.

A Psychological/Affective Resource

They are motivating and fun and help develop positive attitudes towards the target language
They are non-threatening and the more inhibited child will feel secure when singing and chanting as a class or in groups
They can encourage a feeling of achievement and build children’s.

A Cognitive Resource

They help to develop concentration, memory and coordination
They sensitize children to rhyming clues as aids to meaning
Repetition enables children to predict what comes next and to consolidate language items
Accompanying actions or gestures help to reinforce meaning, while channelling high levels of energy in a positive way.

A Cultural Resource

They are from authentic sources and can contribute to the cultural component of a language programme. Children can be encouraged to compare with those in their own language. See chapter 10.

A Social Resource

Singing and chanting together is a shared social experience and helps to develop a class and group identity
They can be used as the basis for a performance or show.

Stories

Stories are motivating, challenging and fun and can help develop positive attitudes. They can create a desire to continue learning

Children can become personally involved in a story as they identify with the characters and try to interpret the narrative and illustrations. This helps develop their own creative powers.
Linking fantasy and imagination with the child’s real world, they provide a way of enabling children to make sense of their everyday life and forge links between home and school.
Listening to stories in class is a social experience. Storytelling provokes a shared response of laughter, sadness, excitement and anticipation which is enjoyable and can help build up confidence and encourage social and emotional development.
Listening to stories allows the teacher to introduce or revise vocabulary and structures, exposing the children to language which will enrich their thinking and gradually enter their own speech.
Listening to stories helps children become aware of the rhythm, intonation and pronunciation of language.
Storybooks cater for different learning styles and develop the different types of ‘intelligences’ that contribute to language learning, including emotional intelligence.
Storybooks provide ideal opportunities for presenting cultural information and encouraging cross-cultural comparison.
Storybooks develop children’s learning strategies such as listening for general meaning, predicting, guessing meaning, and hypothesising.
Storybooks address universal themes beyond the utilitarian level of basic dialogues and daily activities. Children can play with ideas and feelings and think about important issues.
Stories can be chosen to link English with other subjects across the curriculum.
Storybooks add variety, provide a springboard for creating complete units of work that constitute mini-syllabuses and involve pupils personally, creatively and actively in a whole curriculum approach.
Storybooks offer positive concrete outcomes in the form of games, competitions, quizzes, drama, songs, projects, book making, etc.
Learning English through stories can lay the foundations for secondary school in terms of learning basic language functions.

Language Acquisition Theories and Classroom Strategies