Language Acquisition Theories: Behaviorism to TPR
Language Acquisition Theories
Behaviorism
Behaviorism views second language learning (FLL) as a process of imitation and reinforcement. Learners attempt to copy what they hear, and through regular practice, they establish acceptable habits in the new language. The properties of the first language (L1) are thought to influence the second language (L2) learning: similar properties cause positive transfer, while differences cause negative transfer or interference.
The main aim of behaviorist teaching is to form new, correct linguistic habits through intensive practice and eliminating interference errors. However, imitation doesn’t explain all learner productions. Not all errors predicted by the differences between languages occur, and many errors resemble those that appear during L1 acquisition.
Cognitivism
Cognitivism emphasizes the use of cognitive abilities to learn a language: constructing rules, testing them, and altering them if they prove inadequate. Learning occurs in a series of transitional stages.
Cognitivism (Piaget)
Children interact with the world and solve problems. The resulting knowledge is not imitated or innate but actively constructed by the child. Action is fundamental to cognitive development, which results from assimilation and accommodation.
Cognitivism (Vygotsky)
Vygotsky gives a more important role to language, viewing it as a new tool for cognitive development, enabling individuals to do things and organize information. Children interact with a world full of other people. Adults mediate the world for children and make it accessible to them through the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
Cognitivism (Bruner)
Bruner considers language the most important tool for cognitive growth. Scaffolding refers to talk that supports a child in carrying out an activity. Formats and routines combine the security of the familiar with the excitement of the new.
Constructivism
Constructivism involves using constructed information, derived from experience, to solve problems or cooperate with others. Learning is an active process, achieved by doing meaningful and challenging activities. A good understanding of what children already know is essential.
Community Language Learning
Community Language Learning views language as communication (interaction), emphasizing that language is rule-governed and creative. Communicative competence, as defined by Hymes, is the knowledge a learner needs to be communicatively competent in a speech community. Hallyday focuses on language use in its social contexts and the functions of language.
Task/Content-Based Units of Work
- Determine theme or interest area.
- Plan final task or an evaluative product.
- Determine unit objectives.
- Specify contents necessary to carry out the final task/evaluative product: linguistic content, other content.
- Plan the process: determine communication and enabling activities that will lead to the final product; select/adapt/produce appropriate materials for them; structure and sequence the activities.
- Plan instruments and procedures for evaluating the process and product.
Syllabus Types
Common syllabus types include the grammar syllabus, lexical syllabus, notional-functional syllabus, situational syllabus, topic-based syllabus, task-based syllabus, and mixed syllabus.
Error Analysis
Errors can arise from:
- Using prior linguistic knowledge.
- Inducing new rules from input data.
- A combination of the above.
Specific error types include overgeneralization, transfer, simplification by omission, and errors due to the effects of teaching.
Total Physical Response (TPR)
TPR emphasizes developing basic communication skills and vocabulary through meaningful exposure to the target language. Students listen to the teacher using the target language communicatively from the beginning but do not speak at first.
Creating a low affective filter is crucial for learning. If anxiety is detected, students’ self-confidence is boosted. The filter is kept low because students are not forced to speak; they speak when ready.
James Asher reasoned that the fastest, least stressful way to achieve understanding of any target language is to follow directions uttered by the instructor, without native language translation. The new method is explained in the mother tongue on the first day. Students initially only listen and do as the teacher does, following commands in English and performing the actions along with the teacher.