Language as Communication: Oral, Written, and Key Factors

Posted on Jan 27, 2025 in Other civil servant exams

Language as Communication: Oral and Written Forms

This essay explores language, focusing on its role as communication. It is divided into three main sections:

  1. Definition and properties of language.
  2. Historical views and characteristics of spoken and written language.
  3. Communication theory and key factors in interaction.

Language Definition and Properties

Defining language is complex, with some definitions focusing on the general concept and others on specific languages. Trager (1949) defined language as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols for social interaction, while Hall (1964) described it as a means of human communication using oral-auditory symbols.

Key Properties of Human Language

  • Communicative vs. Informative: Communicative signals are intentional, while informative signals are not.
  • Displacement: Language allows reference to past, future, and distant locations.
  • Arbitrariness: There is no natural connection between a linguistic form and its meaning.
  • Productivity: Languages can create novel utterances.
  • Cultural Transmission: Language is passed from one generation to the next.
  • Discreteness: Sounds in language are meaningfully distinct.
  • Other Properties: Vocal-auditory channel, reciprocity, specialization, and rapid fading.

Functions of Language

Jakobson identified six functions of language:

  1. Referential
  2. Emotive
  3. Conative
  4. Phatic
  5. Metalingual
  6. Poetic

A performative function can be added, where an utterance performs an act.

Halliday’s Metafunctions

Halliday grouped these functions into three metafunctions:

  1. Ideational: Organizing experience.
  2. Interpersonal: Establishing social relationships.
  3. Textual: Creating coherent texts.

Communicative Competence

Chomsky (1957) defined language as a set of sentences, with speakers having subconscious knowledge of grammar. Hymes argued for the rules of use, introducing the concept of communicative competence, which includes:

  • Systematic potential
  • Appropriacy
  • Occurrence
  • Feasibility

Canale and Swain’s Theory

Canale and Swain (1980) defined communicative competence as grammatical competence plus sociolinguistic competence. They identified four components:

  1. Grammatical competence
  2. Sociolinguistic competence
  3. Discourse competence
  4. Strategic competence

Savignon (1983) emphasized that communicative competence is dynamic and interpersonal, depending on the negotiation of meaning.

Historical Attitudes Towards Spoken and Written Language

Historically, written language was considered superior due to its association with literature and permanence. Spoken language was often ignored. However, recent studies have shown the structure of spoken language. Nowadays, both are seen as complementary.

Characteristics of Spoken and Written Language

Speech is the universal material of human language, studied in phonetics:

  • Articulatory phonetics
  • Acoustic phonetics
  • Auditory phonetics

Writing systems evolved independently, with two types:

  • Non-phonological systems
  • Phonological systems (syllabic and alphabetic)

Mode Features (Holtgraves, 2002)

Spoken Mode:

  • Grammatical: Ellipsis, abbreviated verbs, coordinated clauses.
  • Lexical: Low density, simple vocabulary, fillers.
  • Discourse: Multiple participants, interpersonal markers.

Written Mode:

  • Grammatical: Full clauses, standard grammar, complex structures.
  • Lexical: High density, abstract terms, varied vocabulary.
  • Discourse: Explicit presentation, few interpersonal markers.

Communication Theory

Communication is the exchange of meanings through a common system of symbols. McLuhan (1960s) associated psychological and sociological phenomena with media. Current focus includes mass communication, persuasion, interpersonal communication, and technology use.

Communication Processes

Lasswell’s question: “Who says what to whom with what effect?” Shannon’s model includes a sender, transmission medium, and receiver. Entropy and redundancy affect communication.

Speech Act Theory

Austin distinguished performative and constative utterances. Speech acts are studied using locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts. Searle (1969) identified five illocutionary points:

  1. Directives
  2. Assertives
  3. Commissives
  4. Declaratives
  5. Expressives

Context

Context includes linguistic context and the context of situation. Halliday categorizes the communicative situation into:

  • Field of discourse
  • Tenor of discourse
  • Mode of discourse

Conclusion

This essay has explored language as communication, covering its definition, properties, functions, and the concept of communicative competence. It has also examined the historical attitudes towards spoken and written language, their characteristics, and the differences between them. Finally, it has discussed communication theory, speech acts, and the importance of context in communicative interactions.