Language Interdependence and Pedagogy in Immersion Education
Language Interdependence in Bilingual Education
The interdependence principle applies to languages that have little in common (e.g., Japanese/English) as well as to languages that have common roots. For example, Cummins et al. (1984) found support for moderate cross-lingual relationships (between L1 and English) in studies involving Japanese and Vietnamese students. However, as pointed out by Genesee (1987), cross-lingual relationships are stronger for similar languages compared to dissimilar languages.
Transfer is more likely to occur from minority to majority language because of the greater exposure to literacy in the majority language outside of school and the strong social pressure to learn it. However, Verhoeven’s (1991) research in The Netherlands has demonstrated that under certain conditions, the transfer of literacy-related skills can occur both ways in bilingual programs: from minority to majority and from majority to minority languages. This pattern has also been reported in the context of early French immersion programs by Cashion and Eagan (1990). As students spontaneously acquired English reading and writing skills, they transferred this knowledge from English to French, a process that was much more evident than the transfer of literacy-related skills from French to English. The results of virtually all evaluations of bilingual programs for both majority and minority students are consistent with predictions derived from the interdependence principle. The interdependence principle is also capable of accounting for data on immigrant students’ L2 acquisition as well as from studies of bilingual language use in the home. Correlational studies also consistently reveal a moderate degree of cognitive/academic interdependence across languages.
An implication of the interdependence principle is that children who are experiencing difficulties in the early stages of a French immersion program might be helped by encouraging the two-way transfer of skills across languages. In other words, if students are slow in learning to read through French (L2), it makes sense to promote literacy development in their stronger language (English) and work for transfer to their weaker language after they have made the initial breakthrough into literacy. In this regard, it is noteworthy that the Katoh Gakuen program has the same proportion of L1 language arts instruction in the early grades as do other Japanese (non-immersion) schools. This appears as a very appropriate strategy, both in view of the increased possibilities for promoting literacy across languages and also the specific challenges of developing literacy in a character-based language such as Japanese.
A Framework for Effective Pedagogy in Immersion Programs
Two problems that have characterized the implementation of French immersion programs in Canada can be traced in part to the transmission-oriented pedagogical approach that has often been practiced in immersion. When teachers are asked why they do not implement more cooperative learning and project-based strategies, they usually indicate concern that students will use English in these activities. The use of L1 by students is seen as contravening the basic premises of immersion. It rarely occurs to teachers to permit students to use their L1 in these activities for discussion and initial draft purposes but to require that final drafts of writing or other project output be in the target language. The principle of language separation and vestiges of “direct method” teaching approaches in immersion programs thus sometimes result in pedagogy that is less cognitively challenging and creative than many educators would consider appropriate. The provision of comprehensible input in L2 is interpreted as the promotion of literal rather than critical comprehension.
Strategies for Enhanced Learning in Immersion Programs
The framework outlined below is intended to provide a general guide to the implementation of pedagogy that will promote L2 learners’ linguistic and cognitive development as well as their mastery of content matter. It assumes that for optimal progress to occur, cognitive challenge and intrinsic motivation must be infused into the interactions between teachers and students. In order for students to operate at a high (grade-appropriate) level in their L2, appropriate contextual supports must also be infused in the instruction. These contextual supports apply not only in immersion programs but in all content-based and bilingual education situations. They include:
- Activating students’ prior knowledge and building background knowledge (through the L1 where necessary)
- Modifying instruction to build sufficient redundancy into the instruction (e.g., through paraphrase, repetition, demonstration, gestures, etc.)
- Use of graphic organizers to transmit conceptual content
- Hands-on activities in content areas such as Science, Mathematics, and Social Studies
- Cooperative learning and other forms of project work that encourage students to generate new knowledge rather than just consume information
- Creative use of technology as a “cultural amplifier” (e.g., research using CD-ROM encyclopedias or the World Wide Web, word processing and data analysis programs to produce reports of project work, sister class networking with distant classes in pursuit of non-trivial bilingual projects, use of video cameras to create video “texts” for real audiences, etc.)
- Integration of reading and writing in a wide variety of genres with all of the above