Late 19th Century: Industry, Socialism & Imperialism

Posted on Apr 7, 2025 in History

Late 19th Century Advances

  • Oil: Introduced as an energy source in 1859, supplementing coal and steam. It found applications in industry and transportation.
  • Electricity: Began replacing mechanical steam power, significantly improving lighting, telecommunications, and urban transport (e.g., electric trams).
  • Steel Industry: Expanded rapidly with the widespread use of steel in ships, railways, bridges, and buildings. This era also saw the development of stainless steel and aluminum production.
  • Chemical Industry: Specialized in creating synthetic products to replace natural ones, including fertilizers, dyes, explosives, medicines, and perfumes.
  • Transport: Railways saw significant expansion across Europe and the U.S. Navigation improved with propeller-driven ships. Karl Benz developed the first gasoline-powered automobile in 1886. The Second Industrial Revolution also marked the beginnings of aviation.
  • Work Reorganization: Frederick Taylor developed Taylorism, a system focused on labor division to boost productivity. Henry Ford later adapted these principles for assembly line production in his automobile factories (Fordism).

Business Structures, Socialism & Labor Demands

Types of Companies

Cartels:
Agreements between independent companies to coordinate production or control markets.
Trusts:
Groups of companies consolidating control within specific economic sectors.
Holding Companies:
Financial companies that own shares in other companies, often performing diverse activities across different sectors.

Paris Commune (1871)

Following the French defeat by the Prussian Army in the Battle of Sedan, the first strictly workers’ revolution occurred. The French government, composed of middle and upper classes, evacuated Paris, creating a power vacuum filled by the Commune assembly, which refused to recognize the authority of the fled government.

PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party)

Founded in 1879 by Pablo Iglesias, it was the first major socialist workers’ party in Spain.

German Social Democratic Party (SPD)

Established following the recognition of universal manhood suffrage in Germany in 1871.

Labor Rights Demands

Workers and early unions demanded improvements, including:

  • Shorter working hours (reducing shifts that could last up to 15 hours).
  • Guaranteed days off (challenging the norm of working almost every day).
  • Limits on child labor (specifically for workers under 14).
  • Higher wages (addressing low pay, especially for women and children).
  • Better living and working conditions (e.g., access to clean water, sanitation, safer workplaces).
  • Fairer pay structures (opposing the practice where women and children often performed similar work to men for significantly less pay).

Imperialism: Drivers, Effects & Governance

Causes of Imperialism

  • Economic factors (resources, markets, investments).
  • Political and strategic motivations (power, prestige, military advantage).
  • Demographic pressures (outlet for population growth).
  • Cultural and ideological justifications (belief in cultural superiority, ‘civilizing missions’).

Consequences of Imperialism

  • Artificial borders leading to future conflicts.
  • Economic exploitation of colonial resources and labor.
  • Social disruptions and imposition of racial discrimination.
  • Violence and military conflicts during conquest and rule.

Types of Colonial Governments

European powers used different administrative models to control colonies:

Colonies:
Territories under direct control over all aspects of governance (e.g., French Indochina, Belgian Congo).
Protectorates:
Territories where local government remained nominally in place but had no control over foreign policy or the economy (e.g., British India, French and Spanish Morocco).
Dominions:
British-controlled territories settled largely by Europeans, granted significant autonomy (e.g., Canada, Australia, New Zealand).

Women’s Changing Roles

During periods of major conflict (like World War I), women increasingly took on industrial, agricultural, and even military support roles due to the absence of men fighting at the front. This participation often granted them greater economic and social independence, advancing the cause for their rights. Their contribution was key in transforming traditional perceptions of women’s roles in society.

Bismarck’s Alliance System

German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck developed a complex system of alliances aimed at maintaining European stability and preventing major conflicts, primarily isolating France:

  • First System (c. 1873): The League of the Three Emperors united Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia.
  • Second System (c. 1879-1882):
    • Germany formed the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary (1879).
    • Italy later joined, creating the Triple Alliance (1882).
    • Bismarck also temporarily revived the League of the Three Emperors (1881).
  • Third System (c. 1887):
    • Germany reinforced the Triple Alliance.
    • Signed the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia, ensuring Russian neutrality if France attacked Germany.
    • Facilitated Mediterranean Agreements involving Britain, Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Spain to maintain the status quo.

The Colonization of Africa

  • In 1884-1885, Germany organized the Berlin Conference to regulate European colonization and trade in Africa, effectively partitioning the continent among European powers.
  • European countries pursued distinct colonial ambitions:
    • Britain: Aimed to establish a continuous colonial corridor from Egypt (North) to South Africa (South).
    • France: Controlled vast areas of North and West Africa, including the Sahara.
    • Portugal: Sought to expand inland from its established coastal colonies in Angola and Mozambique to link them.
  • This partition largely ignored existing African ethnic, linguistic, and political boundaries, sowing seeds for future instability and conflicts.