Leviathan: Hobbes’s Theory of Man and the Social Contract
Hobbes’s Leviathan: A Philosophical Inquiry
Theory of Man
Hobbes’s philosophy centers on the individual and the principles governing human behavior. He believed that human life is driven by a constant pursuit of desires and an aversion to unpleasant stimuli. Happiness, according to Hobbes, is the continuous satisfaction of these desires. The most powerful desire is self-preservation, fueled by the fear of death, a universal human experience. Power, in this context, becomes a means to quell the inherent insecurity of human existence and establish a sense of control.
The State of Nature
Hobbes distinguishes between natural man and civilized man, but this distinction doesn’t imply a transformation of human nature. The inherent selfishness and drive for self-preservation remain constant. The social bond, therefore, is not a natural imperative but a product of the benefits it provides. Human needs and desires, coupled with scarcity, create a state of perpetual competition.
Moral and Natural Law
Natural laws, according to Hobbes, are essentially principles of peace, dictating duties that ensure survival. They impose a rational submission to social cooperation, providing a blueprint for avoiding conflict. Natural law grants individuals the right to use their power as they see fit for self-preservation. Civil society arises from the need to fulfill the conditions of validity for these laws. The state’s role is to provide security for those who act morally, enforcing agreements and ensuring their effectiveness.
The Power of Leviathan (The State)
The sovereign, once established, holds irrevocable power, protecting against attempts to reclaim ceded rights. The subjects’ obedience to the sovereign is paramount. Hobbes acknowledges the legitimacy of power acquired through conquest if it provides effective governance and prevents a state of war. The subjects retain freedom only in areas where the sovereign’s law is silent. Peace and security are prerequisites for individual welfare, allowing citizens to pursue their interests and enjoy their limited freedoms.
The Sword and the Staff
Covenants without the backing of force are meaningless. Religious duties should not interfere with obligations to the sovereign. Hobbes sees the Kingdom of God manifested in two ways: the natural kingdom, dictated by reason and self-preservation, and the prophetic kingdom. He uses natural law to legitimize the monarch’s spiritual authority.
The Threshold of Modernity
Hobbes’s individualism, materialism, and rationalism paradoxically justify absolutism. His concern for civil war led him to advocate for a strong sovereign power. Liberation and discipline become the defining tensions of modernity.
Thomas Hobbes’s Leviathan: Key Chapters Summarized
Chapter XIII: Of the Natural Condition of Mankind
Hobbes argues that humans are fundamentally equal in their faculties, with differences too insignificant to justify claims of inherent superiority. This equality, combined with the drive for self-preservation, creates a state of constant distrust and potential conflict. In the absence of a common power, individuals resort to force or cunning to secure their safety. Competition, distrust, and glory are the primary causes of discord. The state of war, where every man is against every man, persists as long as this climate of fear prevails. The desire for peace arises from the fear of death and the hope for a comfortable life, leading to the establishment of natural laws.
Chapter XV: Of Other Laws of Nature
The third law of nature mandates the fulfillment of covenants, forming the basis of justice. Injustice is defined as the breach of a covenant. Subsequent laws emphasize gratitude, accommodation, forgiveness, proportionate revenge, the avoidance of hatred and contempt, and the recognition of equality. These laws aim to maintain peace and preserve society. They are often referred to as laws of men, reflecting their practical application in human interactions.
Chapter XVI: Of Persons, Authors, and Things Personified
Hobbes defines a person as someone whose words or actions are considered either their own or representative of another person or entity. A natural person acts on their own behalf, while an artificial person represents another. This distinction is crucial for understanding the concept of the sovereign as an artificial person representing the collective will of the people.
Part Two: The State – Chapter XVII: Of the Causes, Generation, and Definition of a State
The ultimate purpose of the state is self-preservation and a more harmonious life, escaping the misery of the state of nature. Covenants without the backing of force are ineffective. Individuals choose a representative (a man or assembly) to embody their collective will and submit to their judgment for the sake of peace and common safety. This creates a unified entity, the state, with the sovereign holding supreme power. Sovereignty can be acquired through force, inheritance, or voluntary agreement. The state provides security and enforces laws, enabling citizens to pursue their interests without constant fear of conflict.
Chapter XXI: Of the Liberty of Subjects
Liberty, for Hobbes, is the absence of external impediments. Natural liberty is the freedom to act according to one’s will and abilities. However, to achieve peace, individuals surrender some natural liberty to create the state and its civil laws. The subject’s liberty exists only where the sovereign’s law is silent. Obligation to the sovereign is contingent on the sovereign’s ability to provide protection. If the sovereign fails in this duty, the subjects revert to the state of nature. The extent of a subject’s liberty is defined by the silence of the law, allowing discretion within the bounds of established rules.