Lexical Units and Semantic Changes in Linguistics
Lexical Units
Definition
Lexical units are meaningful units of language that refer to a concept globally. They are a combination of signifier (the acoustic image or sequence of phonemes) and signified (the concept or idea associated with the sign).
Components of the Sign
- Referent: The real object to which the sign refers (e.g., a table).
- Signifier: The acoustic image or sequence of phonemes.
- Signified: The concept or idea associated with the sign.
Word
A linguistic unit consisting of one or more morphemes written between two spaces. Words are a combination of signifier and signified, i.e., form and content.
Semes
Minimal, distinct meaningful units obtained by opposing meanings with others. The semes that comprise the meaning of a word can be of two kinds:
- Denotative meaning: The objective meaning, common to all speakers (e.g., chicken – a domestic fowl).
- Connotative meaning: The subjective meaning, presented in a particular situation of a speaker or group of people (e.g., chicken – that man is a coward).
Communication Process
Issuer
The person or organization who chooses and selects appropriate signs to convey their message. The issuer starts the communication process.
Receiver
The person or organization who receives the message and decodes and interprets what the sender wants to convey.
Code
The set of rules specific to each system of signs and symbols that the transmitter uses to transmit their message (e.g., grammar of a language, algorithms in computers).
Message
The content of the information submitted; the set of ideas, feelings, events expressed by the sender and intended for the receiver.
Channel
The medium through which the information-communication passes, establishing a connection between the sender and receiver (e.g., air for voice, telephone line for a phone conversation).
Location
The time and place where the act of communication occurs.
Semantic Changes
Definition
Semantic changes are alterations in the meaning of words over time. They can be classified according to their causes:
Types of Semantic Changes
- Historical: Due to the conservative character of language (e.g., tap, pen, azafata).
- Linguistic: When a term is assigned the meaning of another similar form (e.g., Danone for yogurt) or folk etymology (e.g., padlock).
- Psychological: Prejudice and associations established by a social group or individual.
- Social: Changes in usage (e.g., plural), political correctness (e.g., sub-Saharan), and socialized connotations (e.g., CD).
Euphemism and Dysphemism
Euphemism
A soft or decorous manifestation of ideas whose direct expression would be harsh or objectionable. There are three types:
- Pious: To conceal unpleasant realities, such as diseases.
- Of descent and modesty: Referring to body parts.
- Social and political: To overshadow unwanted situations like strikes, layoffs, or war. This includes taboo words (forbidden to utter).
Dysphemism
The opposite of euphemism; a deliberately derogatory or insulting word or phrase used in place of a more neutral one. It can be used jokingly.
Metaphor and Metonymy
Metaphor
A word takes on the meaning of another by a relationship of similarity. Types of metaphors include:
- Simile: Comparison between the real and figurative term (e.g., his hair is like gold).
- Identifying metaphor: Equating the real and imagined term (e.g., his hair is golden).
- Pure metaphor: Using only the figurative term (e.g., wavy gold).
- Lexicalized metaphor: A metaphor that has become a common expression (e.g., spine of a book).
- Poetic metaphor: A creative and imaginative metaphor (e.g., who breastfeed olives?).
- Anthropomorphic metaphor: Attributing human qualities to inanimate objects (e.g., the backbone of the team).
- Zoomorphic metaphor: Using animal terms to describe something (e.g., bull’s eye).
- Synaesthetic metaphor: Based on sensations produced by the senses (e.g., fresh scent).
Metonymy
A type of metaphor where a word takes on the meaning of another by a relationship of contiguity (e.g., UN peacekeepers). Types of metonymy include:
- Synecdoche: Using a part to represent the whole (e.g., see two candles) or the whole for the part (e.g., fatal = people).
Lexical Fields
Definition
Lexical fields are sets of words that are semantically related. These relationships can be based on ranking, opposition, complementarity, identity, etc. Some types of lexical fields include:
- Semantic field: Words in the same grammatical category that share a common sema and have an adversarial relationship or ratio between hypernymy and hyponymy.
- Synonyms: Words with similar meanings.
- Antonyms: Words with opposite meanings.
- Polysemy: Words with multiple meanings.
- Homonymy: Words that sound alike but have different meanings.
Semantic Field
Consists of words in the same grammatical category that share a common sema and have an adversarial relationship or ratio between hypernymy and hyponymy.
- Hypernymy: The general term that encompasses all the elements of the field (e.g., furniture).
- Hyponymy: The more specific terms within the field (e.g., chair, bed, table).
Synonymy
Two or more words that have the same meaning (e.g., mori-death). Types of synonyms include:
- Absolute synonyms: Words with identical meanings (e.g., donkey and ass).
- Contextual synonyms: Words that are synonymous in certain contexts (e.g., sharp-sighted).
- Referential synonyms: Words that refer to the same referent but don’t have the same meaning (e.g., vocals = Frank Sinatra).
- Connotative synonyms: Words with similar figurative or metaphorical associations (e.g., John is a lynx).
Polysemy
A single word with two or more meanings (e.g., head = part of the body, leader of a group). Polysemy is often used in literature through:
- Metaphor: Using a word in a figurative sense (e.g., porthole).
- Metonymy: Using a word to refer to something associated with it (e.g., animal).
- Dyssemia: Using a word with a double meaning (e.g., a fugitive from justice).
- Irony: Using a word to convey the opposite of its literal meaning (e.g., with respect to treat).
Homonymy
Words that sound alike but have different meanings. There are two types:
- Homophony: Words that sound alike but are spelled differently (e.g., male and baron).
- Homography: Words that are spelled and pronounced the same but have different meanings (e.g., cube).
Antonyms
Words that have opposite meanings. There are three classes:
- Gradable antonyms: Words that lie on a spectrum (e.g., hot-warm-cold).
- Complementary antonyms: Words where one term negates the other (e.g., tonic-atonic).
- Reciprocal antonyms: Words that imply the existence of each other (e.g., buy-sell).
Stylistic Features in Miguel Hernandez’s Poetry
Overview
Miguel Hernandez’s poems, though simple in his later works, are rich in literary devices. Some of the most prominent include:
Literary Devices
of all kinds, the most prominent are:
Repetitions: cogedme, cogedme / let me permit me, goes fast / quick passes, Scream! Scream!
Antithesis: the life / of death, so close, and sometimes / that we are far, is kissing in a lifetime s kiss of death throughout
Alliteration: the winged souls of almond cream.
Parallelism: and afternoon / evening and, among the flowers you left / I’m among the flowers, just look / listen enough, to choose good hand / good choices stone
Simile: two strong and shot wounds, attacks as wives, full of anxiety as a port
Personification: trains possessed of a wandering passion, deep voice and hand machines
Metaphor: a carnivore sweet wing knife murderer snake multiple domes.
Symbols: Alza, Spain bull Arise, awake. Is not this ray I will stop living …
We also find anaphors, correlations, images, etc..
1st stage. Proficient in moons.
Convoluted style worship: the complicated understanding within Gongorine fashion force at the time (although its intent is to develop a technique to control the use of the image and elevate the ordinary to a higher category), with numerous mythological references, frequent expressions cultured and ‘prestige’ next to the popular language: spelling of Panocho Orihuela (colloquialism), neologisms (Baker pechiabierto, anteverde, tornalunada,bienherido) and regional (bucket, ‘cube’, enguizcar, ‘incitement’, adana, ‘dirty’ Corvillo, ‘sickle’). Hyperbaton, metaphors, images, puns, synesthesia, humor …
Predominate closed structures and rigid representations of the Baroque, octaves, tenths. (Expert in moons, for example, are 42 eighths tight, very metaphorized, which seem to guessing games described objects)
Gradually the poet is baring his style, and increased and more real feeling.
2nd stage. The ray that has not stopped.
Subject to the metric classical sonnets especially in chains … and triplets are the classic mold that favors the synthesis of overflow emotional and expressive concentration.
His mastery of form makes the device remains hidden, the result looks natural and what the reader perceives the strength and warmth of the word. We find metaphors, images, anaphora, connections and parallels
Lexicon extracted from nature and strength of the telluric (animals, plants, natural phenomena, the earth). 3
Minor cosmetic concern for the “creative emergency” imposed by the historical moment. Poetic language is more straightforward. Compositions and poeticized terms of common speech. The oral epic tone and character (the poems were recited in the trenches) of many compositions of the first book gives way to a more solemn and intimate in the second, as the revolutionary optimism gives way to the grim vision of progress of war, pain and death it causes.
Words and syntax common with many large original metaphors and symbols.
Popularization and transparency of the poem: recovery of romance and minor art verses rhyming assonance, epic elements, antithesis, synecdoches, hyperbole (Viento del pueblo). Innovations in traditional metrics. Rupture of classic and traditional patterns. Polymers and blank verse (unrhymed). Dense special poems and verse stanzas long, with rhyme. (The man lurks).
Stage 4. Songs and ballads of absences.