Liberalism in Spain (1833-1868): From Carlist Wars to Progressive Reforms
Liberalism in Spain (1833-1868)
The First Carlist War (1833-1840)
Between 1833 and 1868, Spain, like much of Western Europe, experienced the introduction of liberalism. The First Carlist War (1833-1839) began when pro-absolutism groups refused to recognize Elizabeth II as the legitimate successor to the Spanish crown. They revolted against the government of Maria Cristina de Borbon, who acted as regent due to her daughter’s minority. The rebels proclaimed the Infante Don Carlos, brother of the deceased Ferdinand VII, as king. This marked the beginning of a bloody civil war.
The First Carlist War was a civil war that took place in Spain between 1833 and 1840. It was fought between supporters of Infante Carlos María Isidro de Borbón (known as Carlists), who advocated for an absolutist regime, and supporters of Elizabeth II, who favored a liberal system. The latter were called ‘Cristinos’ for their support of Regent Maria Cristina.
The Development of the War:
- The war began with Carlist uprisings in the Basque Country and Navarre. Carlists soon controlled the rural areas.
- However, the cities of Bilbao, San Sebastian, Vitoria, and Pamplona remained loyal to Isabel II and organized the liberal resistance.
- The Carlists employed guerrilla warfare tactics.
- Hesitation from the government and delays in sending the army against the Carlists allowed the Carlist leader, General Zumalacarregui, to organize an army. General Cabrera unified the Aragonese and Catalan wings.
- Don Carlos entered Spain and began to push the army front, advancing towards Madrid. However, unable to take the city, he retreated north.
- Don Carlos was supported by absolutist powers like Prussia, Austria, and Russia, who sent money and weapons. Elizabeth II lacked the support of England, France, and Portugal (who favored the introduction of moderate liberalism in Spain).
- General Espartero defeated Carlist troops at the Battle of Luchana in 1836 and lifted the siege of Bilbao.
- General Maroto, on behalf of part of the Carlist army, signed the Convention of Vergara (1839) with General Espartero.
The Establishment of Liberalism (1833-1843)
Progressive sectors assumed the task of dismantling the old regime and legally transforming the absolute state into a liberal one.
The Beginning of Liberal Reforms (1834)
The Carlist War accelerated the process of liberal revolution in Spain. Because the Carlists defended absolutism and traditionalism, the Elizabethan side could only find a social base by seeking a form of constitutional monarchy capable of uniting moderate liberals and those against absolutism. Martinez de la Rosa promulgated a Royal Statute in 1834 that exemplified a type of limited liberalism, making it clear that his reforms were inadequate.
The division that had begun during the Liberal Triennium (1820-1823) between moderate liberals and progressive/exalted liberals led to two major trends: Moderates and Progressives. The crown was forced to accept the progressive sector and implement some of its reforms as the only way to gain popular support and financial resources.
The Rise of Progressivism
In the summer of 1835, the Progressives staged numerous urban revolts through juntas and militias in cities like Jaen, Barcelona, and Madrid. Regent Maria Cristina was forced to call upon a progressive government to be formed. Mendizabal quickly initiated a reform program. However, when he decreed the confiscation of clergy property, the nobility and clergy used all their influence to remove Mendizabal from his position.
After his dismissal in the summer of 1836, the revolt of the Progressives clearly demanded the necessity of a constitutional regime and the establishment of a liberal and progressive system. Following the uprising of the La Granja garrison, the regent decided to recall the progressives and restore the Constitution of Cadiz.
Progressive Reforms (1835-1837)
The Progressives, led by Mendizabal, took on the task of dismantling the old regime and establishing a liberal constitutional monarchy with a significant parliamentary system. They addressed land reform, which included three essential areas:
- Dissolution Law: This prevented noble lords from exercising judicial authority, although they retained their property.
- Decoupling: This tackled the issue of entailed estates (mayorazgos).
- Disentailment: This involved the confiscation and sale of church lands.
Alongside these measures, a series of legislative measures were enforced to complement the framework for the liberalization of the economy: the abolition of the Mesta (sheep herders’ guild), freedom of agricultural leases, abolition of guild privileges, and so on.
The Constitution of 1837
This constitution accepted the thesis of doctrinaire liberalism, maintaining the principle of national sovereignty, the recognition of a broad spectrum of citizen rights, the division of powers, and the absence of a Catholic denominational state. However, it introduced a new chamber: the Senate, which had a more conservative character. It granted greater powers to the crown and its electoral system, based on a census, was extraordinarily restricted.
The Crisis of Liberalism: Espartero Regency (1841-1843)
In the September 1837 elections, the Moderates gained a majority. They moved to discredit the government and attempted to roll back the more progressive and democratic elements of legislation without departing from the constitutional framework. In 1840, they prepared an even more restrictive electoral law, limiting freedom of the press and introducing a law on municipal councils that gave the crown the power to appoint mayors.
The regent’s support for the Moderate policies caused a direct confrontation with the Progressives. This resulted in a broad insurrectionary movement that prompted the resignation of Maria Cristina. The progressive sectors then turned their attention to General Espartero, victor of the Carlist War.
Espartero assumed the regency, but his attitude was marked by authoritarianism. Due to his many failures and unpopularity, Espartero was exiled. To avoid appointing a third regent, the Court of Cadiz decided to lower the age of majority for Queen Elizabeth II and proclaim her queen at the age of 13.