Liberalism, Nationalism, and the Seeds of Revolution
Liberalism
The set of ideological and political transformations occurring in Europe and America between the late eighteenth century and the end of the Napoleonic empire established a school of thought and political/economic doctrine known as liberalism. Its main reference was the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789), which aimed to cohere society based on citizens forming a nation unified by the State. Liberalism posits that society is composed of individuals, not estates, and defends the right of all human beings to liberty. Politically, it opposes absolute power and supports:
- Parliamentary systems
- Separation of powers
- Popular sovereignty
The constitution serves as the fundamental standard, outlining basic principles governing individuals, society, and the state. Liberalism became a revolutionary force in the first half of the nineteenth century, driven primarily by the bourgeoisie and the working classes.
Nationalism
Nationalism is an ideology and a socio-political movement that emerged alongside the concept of the nation itself during the contemporary age, specifically within the historical circumstances of the Age of Revolutions (Industrial Revolution, Bourgeois Liberal Revolutions) starting from the late eighteenth century. It can also refer to nationalist sentiment and the age of nationalism.
As an ideology, nationalism presents a particular nation as the sole reference identity within a political community. It is based on two fundamental principles regarding the relationship between the nation and the State:
- The Principle of National Sovereignty: This holds that the nation is the only legitimate basis for the state.
- The Principle of Nationality: This asserts that each nation should form its own state, and state boundaries should align with national boundaries.
Factors Driving Revolution
Overall, several factors influenced the revolutions of this era, particularly exemplified by the French Revolution:
- A monarchy that succumbed to its own rigidity amidst a changing world.
- The emergence of a middle class (bourgeoisie) that had developed over centuries, achieved significant economic power, and began advocating for political influence.
- Widespread discontent among the masses.
- The expansion of new liberal and Enlightenment ideas.
- A severe economic crisis gripping France following poor agricultural harvests.
- Serious fiscal problems exacerbated by military support for the American War of Independence. This intervention proved to be a double-edged sword; although France ultimately won the war against Great Britain, recovering from its defeat in the Seven Years’ War, the state was left bankrupt with substantial external debt.
The monarchy’s fiscal troubles, combined with the example of democracy in the newly emancipated United States, precipitated events.
Political Factors
From a political standpoint, fundamental ideas espoused by Enlightenment thinkers like Voltaire, Rousseau, and Montesquieu were crucial. Concepts such as political freedom, fraternity, and equality, the rejection of a rigidly stratified society (the estates system), and new political theories on the separation of powers undermined the prestige of the Ancien Régime’s institutions, contributing to their collapse.
Economic Factors
From an economic standpoint, the unmanageable national debt was worsened by a system of extreme social inequality. High taxes oppressed the majority of society (the Third Estate), while the privileged classes (nobility and clergy) were largely exempt. Government expenditures increased concurrently with a decline in agricultural production, affecting landowners and farmers alike, which led to severe food shortages in the months preceding the Revolution. Long-contained social and political tensions erupted during this major economic crisis, fueled by factors like the cost of aiding the American Revolution and soaring agricultural prices.