Liberalism: Origins, Principles, and Impact
Liberalism: Origins and Principles
Liberalism is a philosophical, economic, and political ideology that emerged in Europe in the late 18th century. It was influenced by Enlightenment movements, French rationalism, and the English Revolution of 1688.
Key Principles of Liberalism:
- Defense of individual freedoms.
- Right to choose rulers through suffrage.
- Equality before the law.
The political form of government proposed by liberalism is a constitutional monarchy or a republic with separation of powers, a constitution, elections, and political parties. The bourgeoisie was the class that sought to access political power.
Until the late 19th century in Europe, moderate liberalism, based on census suffrage, prevailed. During the 20th century, radical liberalism gained power, based on universal suffrage (male).
Economic liberalism defends non-state intervention in economic life and is based on the law of supply and demand.
Liberalism vs. Absolutism
| Liberalism | Absolutism | |
|---|---|---|
| Political |
|
|
| Economic | Free economy based on supply and demand. No state intervention. | Regulated economy. State intervention. |
| Social | Class-divided society. Bourgeoisie and working classes demanded access to political power. | Society divided into three estates: Nobility, Clergy, and Commoners (peasants). |
Implementation of Liberalism and the End of the Old Regime
The implementation of liberalism and the destruction of the Ancien Régime was not a sudden event. It was a gradual process, punctuated by sudden revolutionary leaps.
Phases of the Liberal Revolutions:
- First Phase: 17th and 18th-century revolutions (French Revolution, English Revolution, and American Independence).
- Pivotal Event: The Congress of Vienna (1815), which attempted to restore the Old Regime (Restoration).
- Second Phase: Between 1820 and 1850, encompassing revolutionary processes in multiple European countries (revolutions of 1820, 1830, and 1848).
The English Revolution
The absolute power of Charles I of England was challenged by the bourgeoisie and part of the nobility. The conflict led to civil war and the beheading of the monarch. As a result, Britain established a parliament, limited royal power, and enacted laws guaranteeing citizens’ rights and separation of powers.
The American War of Independence
The eastern part of the present United States was under British colonial rule until 1776, when a struggle for independence began, which was also a revolution. The conflict resulted in the birth of a new nation, organized as a republic with a constitution, a parliament, and inalienable rights for citizens.
Causes of the French Revolution
The revolutionary process was a consequence of the following factors:
- Economic: France was ruined and on the verge of bankruptcy due to wars and the nobility’s extravagance. This situation was exacerbated by bad harvests, making life unbearable for the non-privileged classes.
- Social: The nobility and clergy enjoyed all the privileges and wealth, while the Third Estate had no opportunities for political office and bore most of the state taxes.
- Political: Political institutions based on absolute monarchy clashed with the enlightened ideas of intellectual circles.
The Restoration
The Restoration was an attempt to restore the Old Regime. After defeating Napoleon, the major European powers met at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) and agreed to restore most of Europe’s Ancien Régime and absolute monarchy. To achieve this, the monarchs established a military pact known as the “Holy Alliance” for mutual assistance against new revolutions. The Congress of Vienna also agreed to territorial changes:
- Creation of a confederation of 39 German states.
- Russia gained territories of Finland, Poland, and Bukovina.
- Austria lost the Netherlands but gained Veneto.
- Lombardy and the UK were created.