Liberalism’s Constitution: Democracy’s Evolution in Britain and France
The Constitution of Liberalism: Britain and France
In Britain and France, democracy made slow progress. Universal male suffrage and religious freedom were endorsed, freedom of expression developed, and modern political parties emerged. The concession of the vote to all men provoked significant changes in party politics. Socialist parties began to gain parliamentary representation, advocating for workers’ rights.
Women continued to lack rights, including the right to vote, and remained legally subjected. Women’s associations fought for their rights, a movement known as the suffragette movement, where the right to vote (suffrage) was the main demand. Another obstacle to the development of democracy was the widespread practice of electoral manipulation by powerful individuals seeking to control election results.
Imperialism: What Is It?
Imperialism implies the extension of a country’s dominion through the conquest of others. The conquering country is the metropolis, and the conquered territories are colonies. The 19th-century imperialist expansion had key protagonists: Great Britain and France were the main colonial powers. Other European countries (Germany, Italy, Belgium) and extra-European countries (U.S., Japan) also created empires. Conversely, Spain lost its colonies in the Americas and the Pacific.
Economic Factors of Imperialism
Colonies became markets where goods were not subject to customs duties. They were spaces where capital could be invested through the construction or improvement of public works like railways and ports, and through granting loans to the colonized territories. Colonies also offered cheap access to raw materials for industries.
Political Factors of Imperialism
Imperialism increased a country’s prestige in the world and strengthened national pride among its inhabitants. Serbian territorial expansion also played a role.
Ideological Factors of Imperialism
Imperialism intensified due to racist ideologies prevalent in the West during the 19th century. Westerners considered the white race superior, granting them the right to dominate other peoples deemed backward or inferior. They believed they had a mission to civilize these peoples. The ideal of civilizing backward peoples also fueled colonial expansion through the spread of Christianity. Hundreds of missions were founded in Africa, Asia, and Oceania.
From 1870, geographical societies were established in Britain, France, the U.S., and Germany to launch scientific expeditions across the planet. The country that organized the expedition had the right to conquer and exploit the territory.
Colonies and Protectorates
Colonies: Territories were subjected to the sovereignty of the colonial power and administered by it. Example: Belgian Congo.
Protectorates: Colonial powers controlled the foreign policy and exploitation of the country’s resources, while native authorities were in charge of internal politics. This was the case in Egypt and in the Spanish and French zones of Morocco.
Consequences of Imperialism
Territories lost their independence, but Western powers gained commercial advantages.
Artistic Movements
Expressionism
Expressionism, exemplified by artists like Munch, violently depicted anguished feelings, anxieties, fears, and personal turmoil.
Fauvism
Fauvism, with Matisse as a key figure, was characterized by bright colors and simple, decorative forms.
Cubism
Cubism, pioneered by Picasso, presented objects from different angles, distorting reality.
