Liberty, Responsibility, and Political Philosophy: A Historical Perspective
The Probation Required
The ideal of liberty is universally recognized as a natural principle, allowing individuals their most intimate and personal way of being. The self is thus the first and most fundamental value; freedom is the expression of the claim of identity. The individual requirement to perform self and be free is the result of a social obligation.
B. Evolution of the Concept of “Liberty”
In ancient Greece, freedom was a legal-political concept tied to citizenship and distinct from slavery. Greeks believed in destiny, with Socrates minimizing the difference between free and slave, proposing freedom as a universal inner reality. The good citizen, therefore, must bow to the dictates of the community.
Early Christianity deepened this understanding of freedom as inner conscience, defending autonomy from Roman persecutions. Compared to Greek rationality, it developed the idea of human will as the sole cause of actions. During the Middle Ages, freedom was often confused with free will, guided by reason enlightened by God.
Two novel approaches emerged later:
- Kant: Recognized the moral character of freedom but not its absolute reality.
- Mechanistic Illustration: Opposed any justification of freedom as a principle of human action.
Since the nineteenth century, the concept of freedom has been revisited in its original Greek meaning as a basic political concept, analyzed by figures like Marx and Mill.
From the twentieth century, developments in quantum mechanics, Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, and probability analysis have enhanced our understanding of human behavior and its predictability.
C. Sartre’s Metaphysics of Freedom
Following two world wars, the twentieth century became a time of disillusionment. Science and technology, once seen as tools for progress, were employed for domination and destruction. This context gave rise to existentialist philosophy, with Sartre as a prominent figure.
Existentialism emphasizes self-development, giving humans an essence defined by their choices. Absolute indeterminacy, pure contingency, and an unfinished project provide constant opportunities to decide.
- Being-in-itself: The being of things, not truly human.
- Being-toward-if: The person, referring to what has to be human and not objectified reality.
Sartre concludes that the fundamental dimension of being-for-itself is absolute freedom, which can lead to feelings of helplessness, despair, and distress.
The Responsibility Required
Defining morality leads to the question of responsibility. To impute means to attribute an action to an agent as a cause. Responsibility implies foreknowledge of the consequences of an action, indicating autonomy. Due responsibility requires a break with the idea that life is predetermined by fate or market forces.
A. Personal and Social Responsibility
Platonic Theory
The contract of citizenship involves belonging to a state chosen through a tacit agreement to enforce laws, even if unfair. Justice is the foundation of the city-state, and just law is the essence of political equality. Plato focuses on justice, not the objective description of political phenomena, studying standards and theoretical principles of governance. For Plato, the righteous were worthy of all state dignities, achieved through a process of improving virtues.
Aristotelian Theory
While society arises from a pact in some theories, Aristotle sees it as a natural result of humans’ social nature. The state is a political organization resulting from the association of families and villages, also having a natural origin. Politics belongs exclusively to citizens. Aristotle’s theory of government forms classifies them based on the common interest, not self-interest. Monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy are good forms, while oligarchy, tyranny, and demagoguery are degenerations. He favors moderate democracy in a relatively small, self-sufficient society.
Medieval Theory: The Common Good
Individuals unite based on a collective interest. Romans established thoughts on legal entities. The virtue of justice connects humans through the res publica, a society united in seeking the common good, regulated by law, representing a rational order.
Modern Theories
Social organization and individual lives are justified by an agreement establishing basic principles: the social contract.
- Absolutist Theory (Hobbes): The state results from a contract where individuals cede some freedom to a superior body preventing social conflict.
- Liberal Theory (Locke): Society originates in a state of nature where individuals have natural rights (life, liberty, property). The state protects these rights under a social contract. Locke’s model led to liberal democracy, where elected leaders ensure social order and respect individual rights.
Legislative Power: Enacts laws.
Executive Power: Determines how force is employed.
Federative Power: Declares war or makes peace.
18th-Century Sovereignty Theory (Rousseau)
The right to rule is not divine but depends on the general will. A social state requires an agreement mitigating the consequences of a corrupt society. Rousseau’s social contract eliminates self-interest through submission to the general will, achieved through unanimous assembly. His model suggests direct democracy.