Linguistic Borrowings and Neologisms in Spanish

Voices: Words derived from the evolution of Latin.
Cultisms: Words derived directly from Latin that have not undergone typical language evolution.
Linguistic Loans: Words from other languages that are incorporated into Spanish.

Substrate Words: Words from pre-Roman languages, e.g., dog, mud.
Teutonic Words: Words from the ancient Gothic language spoken by Germanic peoples who came to the Iberian Peninsula in the 15th century, e.g., war, rich.
Arabic Words: Words from Arabic, e.g., mayor, bathrobe.
Gallicisms: Words from French (Gaul). These penetrated Castilian in two stages:
1. During the Middle Ages, via the Camino de Santiago.
2. In the 18th century, during the Enlightenment, when French was the most prestigious language, e.g., page, chef, wild.
Italianisms: Words incorporated during the Renaissance, when Italy extended its cultural influence throughout Europe, e.g., novel, piano.
Indigenous American Words: Terms from various American Indian languages after the discovery of America, e.g., tomato, cocoa.
Anglicisms: Words from English. They began to be incorporated in the 19th century and became abundant during the 20th century, e.g., soccer, tennis, basketball.
Loans from other Iberian languages:
- Lusisms: Words from Portuguese.
- Galicianisms: Words from Galician.
- Basquisms: Words from Basque.
- Catalanisms: Words from Catalan.

Adaptation (Calco): The word is adapted to the phonetics and spelling of the receiving language.
Translation (Calco by translation): Terms formed by composition are literally translated.
Xenisms: Words that retain their original form, and speakers try to pronounce them similarly.

Neologisms

A neologism is a new word. Neologisms are incorporated into the language by two different procedures:

Incorporation of recent borrowings (e.g., zapping, hardware).
Creation of new words using the language’s resources, such as parasynthesis, acronyms, and bypass (e.g., windows, moon landing).

A word ceases to be a neologism when speakers lose consciousness of its novelty.

Adjectives do not have inherent gender but take on the gender of the noun they agree with. There are two types:

Adjectives of one termination: Their gender is determined by the noun they modify.
Adjectives of two terminations: These use the morpheme -o for masculine and -a for feminine.

The adjective reflects the same number as the noun, using morphemes. The unmarked term is for singular, and -s or -es indicates plural.

Positive Grade: Expresses the quality without intensifying it or comparing it with other people or things.
Comparative Grade: Establishes a comparison between two terms.
Superlative Grade: Expresses the quality in its maximum intensity.

Specifying Adjective: Limits and restricts the noun’s meaning, noting a quality that distinguishes the object from other possibilities.
Explanatory Adjective: Indicates a quality of a being or object that is not necessary for identification.

Alliteration: Repetition of phonemes or syllables in several words.
Onomatopoeia: A type of alliteration that imitates a sound of nature.
Paronomasia: Slight phonetic changes that create disparate meanings.
Diafora: Repetition of a word with different meanings.
Pun: Repetition of identical sounds, where words acquire different meanings.