Linguistic Concepts and Analysis
TMA 6
Compustar Prayer
A prayer can be expressed as two or more predicates, each expressing part of a meaning. They can be identified by their nuclear predicate.
Yuxtapuestas
These are coordinated propositions in their first mode, up to a rhythmic period that can be signaled by punctuation marks. They are frequently used.
Coordinadas
- Copulative: Express the sum or succession of actions. The copulative conjunctions are “and”, “but”, and “that”.
- Adversative: Express contrasting actions.
- Disjunctive: Express two mutually exclusive actions.
- Distributive: Express the alternative distribution of actions or subjects.
- Explanatory: Clarify the meaning of a previous proposition.
- Inferential: Maintain the flow of speech, often expressing a consequence.
Proposiciones Subordinate
Compound sentences by subordination are formed by two or more propositions, where one is the main proposition and the others have a syntactic function within the main proposition. They are classified as:
- Subordinate substantive
- Subordinate adjective
- Subordinate adverbial
P. Sub. Substantive
These can perform more than one syntactic function.
P. Sub. Adjtivas
They have the same function as the adjective complement in simple sentences and are considered qualifiers that limit or adjust the adjective. The relative nexus shows the syntactic function within the subordinate adjective clause and may agree or disagree with its antecedent. These are:
- “that”
- “which”
- “who”
- “whose”
- “where”
- “how”
- “when”
There are two classes of subordinate adjectives: specificative, which restrict the nominal significance of the nucleus, and explanatory, which expand the nominal significance of the nucleus.
P. Sub. Adverbials
These propositions express place, time, condition, cause, comparison, etc. There are:
- Adverbials of place, time, and manner
- Circumstantial adverbials: concessive, comparative, conditional, consecutive, and final
Adverbial and circumstantial subordinates are analyzed following a semantic criterion rather than a syntactic one, like substantive and adjective subordinates.
Sub. Adverbials of Place
These indicate the place where the verbal action is performed. They answer the question “where?” and can be substituted by an adverb of place.
The adverb “where” can introduce:
- Direct interrogation
- Indirect interrogation
- Subordinate adjective
- Subordinate adverbial of place
Sub. Adv. Modals
These express the way in which the action of the main proposition develops. They answer the question “how?” and are introduced by:
- Direct and indirect interrogative
- Subordinate relative
- Subordinate adverbial modal
- Subordinate circumstantial comparative
Sub. Adv. Temporals
These express the moment when the action of the main proposition develops. They answer the question “when?” and express anteriority, simultaneity, and posteriority.
Sub. Circumstances. Comxativas
These establish a comparison between two or more elements. The comparison can be of superiority, equality, or inferiority.
Sub. Circumstn. Concessivas
These express an objection to the action in the main proposition. They are introduced by “although”.
Sub. Circumstances. Conditionals
These express a condition that must be fulfilled for the action of the main proposition to take place.
Sub. Circumstances. Causals
These express a cause-effect relationship, usually in the indicative mood. They express the effect of a cause.
Sub. Circumstances. Consecutivas
These are the inverse of causals. They express the cause of an effect.
Sub. Circumstances. Finals
These express the purpose for which the action in the main proposition is performed. The verb can be in the subjunctive or infinitive mood.
Item 7: Historical Loans
Voices Pre-Roman, Germans, and Arabs
- Pre-Roman: Belonging to languages spoken by peoples who lived on the Iberian Peninsula before the arrival of the Romans.
- Germanic: Lexical inheritance provided by the Germanic peoples.
- Arabic: Lexical contribution of the Arabic language.
- Patrimonial: Words that have been in the language since its inception and have witnessed all the developments since Vulgar Latin.
- Cultism: Words from Latin or Greek that have entered Castilian after its origin and retain a form very close to the original Latin or Greek, but with the phonetic and grammatical structure characteristic of Castilian.
- Semicultism: Words that entered Castilian after its origin and have undergone a slight transformation.
- Doublets: Two different words (currently) that come from the same Latin or Greek word. (e.g., ration-chapter).
- Latinisms: Words, idiomatic expressions, and traits specific to Latin that have been preserved in a modern language.
Prefixes and Suffixes
- Prefixes: Mostly come from Latin, some from Greek, and others are Castilian formations.
- Suffixes: Supplement and clarify the meaning of the word, also determining its grammatical category (noun, verb, adjective, etc.).
Lexical Family and Semantic Field
- Lexical family: Composed of words having the same lexeme or root, from Latin or Greek. They use alternating lexemes from Latin.
- Semantic field: Made up of words that share an idea and express it in different contexts (e.g., synonyms and antonyms).
Lexical Expansion
The lexicon of a language can be extended by:
- Combination of morphemes (composition, derivation, and parasynthesis)
- Incorporation of words from other languages (neologisms, loans, and calques)
Composition, Derivation, and Parasynthesis
- Simple: Consisting of a lexeme without morphemes (e.g., lexemes with inflectional suffixes -a, -e, -o).
- Compound: Composed of two lexemes together or separately, joined by a preposition or juxtaposed.
- Derived: Consisting of a stem and affixes.
- Parasinthetic: Words that are formed by both composition and derivation simultaneously.
Neologisms
Lexical innovations that occur in a language as a result of the need to name new realities. Introduced by:
- Derivation: Creations of the language itself.
- Word formations on Greek and Latin roots.
- Words formed with the initial letters of other words (acronyms).
Loans
Words taken from one language that are incorporated into another with their original form.
Calques
The result of tracing a language’s way of thinking or reality onto another language. Calques can be phonetic, morphological, and semantic.
Archaisms
Words that are no longer used or used very little (e.g., “saya”).
Antonymy
- Lexical antonyms: Words having an opposite meaning in their semantic lexeme.
- Grammatical antonyms: Formed by adding prefixes to a word to create an opposite meaning.
Polysemy and Homonymy
- Polysemy: Occurs when signifiers have multiple meanings.
- Homonymy: Two or more linguistic signs with distinct origins and meanings have the same signifier (i.e., the same form).
Paronymy
Consists of the proximity of two words that sound very similar but have different meanings.