Linguistic Evolution in the Iberian Peninsula: From Latin to Modern Languages

Posted on Apr 2, 2025 in Latin

Latin Roots in Hispania

Vulgar Latin came into contact with pre-Roman languages in Hispania. These included Celtic-Iberian and Lusitanian (Indo-European family), as well as Iberian, Basque, and Tartessian (language family unknown). All these pre-Roman languages eventually disappeared, although they influenced the Latin spoken in the region, with the notable exception of Basque, which survived.

Emergence of Romance Languages in Iberia

The Latin brought by Roman soldiers and settlers diversified through contact with these pre-Roman languages. Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire (5th century) and during the subsequent Reconquista (8th-15th centuries), Latin evolved into distinct Romance (or Neo-Latin) languages across the Iberian Peninsula. From west to east, these are:

  • Galician-Portuguese
  • Leonese
  • Castilian
  • Navarro-Aragonese
  • Catalan

Castilian (Spanish)

Castilian formed from Latin in contact with a Basque-related language in the Ebro region, emerging alongside other Romance languages.

  • First Documents: Glosas Emilianenses and Glosas Silenses (11th century).
  • First Major Literature: Cantar de Mio Cid (12th century).
  • Standardization: First adjustments to spelling and literary writing under Alfonso X the Wise and the Toledo School of Translators (13th century).
  • Expansion (1492 onwards): Publication of Nebrija’s Gramática de la lengua castellana; expansion of Castilian (Spanish) to the Canary Islands and the Americas; flowering of Spanish literature (Golden Age: 16th-17th centuries).
  • Further Spread: Extension to the Mediterranean (Ladino or Judeo-Spanish) and the Philippines (though receding now in favor of English).
  • Institutionalization: Foundation of the Royal Spanish Academy (Real Academia Española) in the 18th century.
  • Modern Variation: Regional varieties include Murcian, Extremaduran, Andalusian (Peninsular dialects), and Canarian Spanish, alongside established standards in major Latin American cities (e.g., Buenos Aires, Mexico City, Bogotá).
  • Global Presence: Establishment in Equatorial Guinea and continued growth in the United States due to migration.

Catalan

Catalan emerged in the northeast of the peninsula and had extended throughout modern-day Catalonia by the 12th century. It later spread to Valencia and the Balearic Islands (where the local variant, Valencian, is linguistically considered part of the Catalan system), the city of Alghero in Sardinia, Andorra, and the Roussillon region of France.

  • Medieval Flourishing & Revival: A significant literary tradition (including troubadours) existed in the Middle Ages. After a period of decline relative to Castilian, it experienced a revival in the 19th century known as the Renaixença.
  • Current Status: Spoken by approximately 7 million people, Catalan is co-official with Castilian in the autonomous community of Catalonia, Valencia (as Valencian), and the Balearic Islands.

Galician

Galician emerged in the northwest and rapidly expanded southwards, forming a linguistic unit with Portuguese until the 15th century.

  • Medieval Culture: Experienced a poetic and cultural blossoming in the Middle Ages (e.g., the Cantigas de Santa Maria, attributed to Alfonso X the Wise).
  • Divergence & Resurgence: While Portuguese expanded globally (Brazil, Africa, Asia), Galician became primarily a language of rural and family life. It underwent a resurgence in the 19th century known as the Rexurdimento (parallel to the Catalan Renaixença).
  • Current Status: Co-official with Castilian in Galicia, Galician has expanded its social use and literary production in recent decades.

Leonese (Asturian)

Leonese emerged from Latin in the region of Asturias and held prestige in the Kingdom of León until the 11th century.

  • Decline: It was gradually marginalized by the growing influence and use of Castilian.
  • Survival: Still spoken, mainly in rural areas, in three main varieties within Asturias (often referred to collectively as Asturian or Bable).
  • Standardization & Education: A standard form is promoted by the Academy of the Asturian Language (Academia de la Llingua Asturiana) and is taught in schools. This standard is also generally followed in contemporary literary culture.
  • Future Prospects: As a spoken language, it often mixes with Castilian, which dominates media and public life, leading to a precarious future.

Navarro-Aragonese

This Romance variety survived distinctly until the end of the Middle Ages.

  • Castilian Influence: It was strongly influenced by Castilian from early on, evident even in its earliest documents.
  • Absorption: Largely absorbed by Castilian from the 15th century onwards.
  • Remnants: Survives today primarily in local and familiar use, especially in Pyrenean valleys of Huesca (Aragon), where it is known as Aragonese (fabla).

Basque (Euskera): A Non-Romance Language

Basque, or Euskera, is unique as it is not derived from Latin and its origins remain unknown (a language isolate).

  • Geographic Distribution: Traditionally spoken in rural areas of the Basque Country and Navarre, sometimes as the sole language of communication in non-hispanicized zones.
  • Dialectal Variation: Exhibits significant local dialectal variation.
  • Standardization & Status: A standard variety, Euskara Batua, is co-official with Castilian in the Basque Autonomous Community and parts of Navarre. It is taught widely in schools (ikastolas), and Basque literature and media continue to grow.