Linguistic History of Spain: From Latin to Modern Languages
The Linguistic Landscape of Hispania
From the third century BC, the Romanization of Hispania led to the decline of most pre-Roman languages, except for Basque, establishing Latin as the dominant language. Although the Visigoths invaded Hispania in the sixth century, they eventually adopted the Latin-based language of the conquered population. Furthermore, the settlement of various Germanic peoples within the Roman Empire accelerated the evolution and fragmentation of Latin.
Later, the Arab conquest of the peninsula pushed Christian forces north, initiating the Reconquista. Over the next seven centuries, distinct peninsular kingdoms emerged. Within these kingdoms, Latin continued to diversify, giving rise to several Romance languages. From west to east, these included:
- Galician-Portuguese
- Leonese
- Castilian
- Navarrese-Aragonese
- Catalan
These Latin dialects spread southward as the Reconquista progressed. Castilian eventually gained prominence, hindering the expansion of Asturian-Leonese and Navarro-Aragonese. The major surviving Romance languages became Galician, Portuguese, Castilian, Catalan, and Valencian. Alongside these, the pre-Roman language, Basque, endured.
Galician Language Evolution
Galician resulted from Latin’s evolution in the region north and south of the Minho River. Initially, Galician and Portuguese were the same language but began to diverge due to the historical and political separation of their communities. Galician is spoken primarily in Galicia but also extends into parts of León and Zamora (Sanabria).
The Spanish Constitution recognizes Galician as an official language alongside Spanish in the Autonomous Community of Galicia. During the Middle Ages, Galician literature flourished, particularly through the songs of troubadours (cantigas). Subsequently, its use became mainly domestic until a cultural revival in the 19th century known as the Rexurdimento.
Catalan and Valencian Languages
Catalan and Valencian are often considered geographical varieties of the same Romance language derived from Latin. Catalan is spoken in Catalonia, the Balearic Islands, Andorra, and parts of Aragon and the Valencian Community. It holds official status, alongside Spanish, in Catalonia and the Balearic Islands.
Catalan developed a significant body of literature during the Middle Ages. However, from the 16th century onwards, its use in high culture declined in favour of Spanish, reducing it largely to vernacular status. The 19th-century cultural movement known as the Renaixença initiated its recovery. Following this, in the early 20th century, a standard form of the language was developed.
After the Spanish Civil War, the use of Catalan/Valencian faced restrictions in education and official contexts. Currently, supported by autonomous governments, it is used across various public domains. Valencian is recognized as an official language, alongside Spanish, in the Valencian Community. Historically, the coexistence of these languages involved significant diglossia favouring Spanish until the late 20th century. In 1983, legislative measures by the autonomous government began the process of normalizing Valencian in social and educational settings.
Basque: A Pre-Roman Language
Basque (Euskara) is likely the only pre-Roman language to have survived the Romanization of the Iberian Peninsula. It is spoken in areas of the Basque Country and Navarre in Spain, and in the Northern Basque Country in France.
Although some texts were written in Basque in the 16th century, its literary use remained limited, partly due to its dialectal fragmentation and the lack of a unified standard. It primarily persisted as a spoken language, significantly influenced by Castilian (Spanish) since Roman times.
Unlike Catalan and Galician, Basque did not undergo a comparable 19th-century renaissance. Official efforts to recover and promote the language began during the Second Spanish Republic but were halted by the Civil War. Today, driven by autonomous government initiatives, there is a concerted effort towards teaching and standardization. Linguists and scholars have collaborated to develop a unified standard Basque, known as Euskara Batua.