Linguistic Signs & Sentence Composition: An Overview
1. Linguistic Signs
Words, as linguistic signs, consist of two interconnected elements: an expression (the word itself) and a lexical meaning (the concept it represents). Some words possess a concrete, referential meaning, while others have a grammatical function, enabling connections between lexical words.
2. Word Meaning
The primary significance of a word is its stable, core meaning. Secondary meanings arise from associations speakers make with other meanings or emotional values added to the denotative meaning.
4. Semantic Change
Semantic change refers to the evolution of word meanings, leading to expansion or reduction in their scope.
4.1. Metaphor
Metaphor extends a word’s meaning by applying it to a related concept based on resemblance. Metaphors can highlight positive aspects (ennobling metaphors) or negative aspects (degrading metaphors).
4.2. Metonymy
Metonymy broadens a word’s meaning by applying it to a related concept based on contiguity. Forms of metonymy include:
- Place/time for event
- Place for institution
- Material for object
- Container for content
- Brand for product
- User for object
- Part for whole
4.3. Ellipsis
Ellipsis occurs when a word adopts the meaning of another word that frequently accompanies it, and the latter word is omitted. This primarily affects adjectives.
5. Semantic Relations
Words are interconnected, and their meanings depend on these relationships. Three primary types of semantic relations exist: similarity, opposition, and inclusion.
5.1. Synonymy
Synonymy is the relationship between words that share one or more meanings. Two types of synonymy exist: partial and total. Partial synonymy occurs when words overlap in some meanings. Total synonymy occurs when one word can replace another in any context.
5.2. Antonymy
Antonymy is based on opposition or difference in meaning. Three classes of antonyms exist: complementary, reciprocal, and gradable. Complementary antonyms are pairs with mutually exclusive meanings. Reciprocal antonyms express a two-way relationship. Gradable antonyms represent opposite ends of a scale.
5.3. Hyponymy
Hyponymy is the relationship where one word’s meaning is included in another’s. The included term is the hyponym, and the including term is the hyperonym. When a hyperonym has multiple hyponyms, they are co-hyponyms.
2. Sentence Composition
Compound sentences are formed by linking two or more complete sentences into a larger unit.
3. Sentence Groups: Coordination
A sentence group consists of two or more independent sentences related through coordination. Each sentence maintains its own purpose and could stand alone as a message. Syntactically, coordinated sentences are independent; neither functions as a constituent of the other.
Mariano José de Larra (1809-1837)
Born in Madrid, Larra’s Francophile father supported Napoleon. His family emigrated to France in 1813. Upon returning to Spain, Larra observed stark contrasts between modern French and traditional Spanish societies. In 1833, under a liberal regime, he wrote political articles under the pseudonym Figaro. His ideology evolved towards progressivism. Despite success, Larra grew disillusioned with politics and personal setbacks. He tragically died by suicide in 1837.
Larra’s articles are categorized into:
- Articles of Morals: Critiques of Spain’s backward society, advocating for Europeanization and modernization.
- Political Articles: Attacks on Carlists and moderate liberal governments.
- Literary Articles: Commentaries on literary works, especially plays.
Larra’s direct, engaging style, often employing anecdotes, aimed to persuade readers. Like a true Romantic, he infused his writing with personal involvement and irony.
Benito Pérez Galdós (1843-1920)
Born in Las Palmas, Gran Canaria, Galdós later moved to Madrid. A progressive, he served as a deputy. His later years were marked by illness, blindness, and financial hardship. His extensive literary output includes novels, plays, and essays.
His novels are grouped into:
- Episodios Nacionales (National Episodes)
- Novels of the First Period
- Contemporary Novels
National Episodes: A fictionalized history of 19th-century Spain, from Trafalgar to the Restoration, comprising 46 novels in five series.
Novels of the First Period: Written concurrently with the National Episodes, these novels, including La Fontana de Oro (The Fountain of Gold), explore ideological conflicts in Spain.
Contemporary Novels: These 24 novels offer a comprehensive portrait of Spanish society, featuring diverse characters whose complexities transcend simple categorization.