Literary and Intellectual Currents: American, French Revolutions, and Victorian Era
American and French Revolutions
American Revolution (AR): Excessive taxes, perceived as unfair to the American colonies, fueled corruption and smuggling. Restrictions on trade with other nations and the lack of representation in the British Parliament were major grievances. These ideas were published in Common Sense. Thomas Paine argued that humanity was self-owned, stating, ‘his person is his title deed’.
French Revolution (FR): It was perceived as a natural, rational development, a simple democratic movement, and an inevitable consequence of progress and Enlightenment, aiming to dismantle the tyrannical aristocracy of France. Paine opposed Edmund Burke’s views on revolutions. Thomas Paine, a radical politician and intellectual, was a friend of many American ‘Founding Fathers’ and a witness to the French Revolution.
Victorian Era Literary Genres and Intellectual Movements
The Historical Novel (HN)
The historical novel is a literary genre where the plot unfolds in a past setting. It flourished during a time of change, influenced by Walter Scott. The historical novel served a ‘political’ function: to understand the present by examining the nation’s origins. It aimed to foster a deeper understanding of national identity, address the problems and tensions plaguing the country, offer insights into potential solutions for evolving while preserving national essence, and provide profound perceptions of human nature.
The Industrial Novel (IN)
The industrial novel emerged during the Victorian period, particularly with the onset of the Industrial Revolution, as a response to economic instability and class conflict. Authors depicted radical reforms and societal restructuring through improvements in the living and working conditions of the working class. This genre was heavily influenced by ‘Chartism,’ a national political movement associated with working-class radicalism, which sought to compel Parliament to meet their demands. Prominent authors of this movement included Disraeli, Dickens, Brontë, Kingsley, and Gaskell.
Natural Theology (NT) and Natural Philosophy (NPhi)
Natural Theology: An attempt to establish religious certainty through the scientific study of nature. This theological approach sought to provide arguments for the existence of a deity based on reason and ordinary experience of nature. William Paley’s Natural Theology argued that the complexity and sophistication of the natural world indicated it could not be the product of chance. Natural Theology was related to natural history, attempting to unify and reconcile science and religion, with an emphasis on geology.
Natural Philosophy: The philosophical study of physics (as defined by Aristotle), encompassing nature and the physical universe. It was dominant before the development of modern science. Around 1800, natural history emerged, seeking to uncover the ‘hidden’ structural laws governing biology, physiology, and anatomy. It speculated about the mechanisms and processes underlying the structure and diversity of organic life, aiming to provide a genetic account of the development of the present order from the past. This contrasted sharply with the sciences included in natural philosophy.
Victorian Science Fiction (V Sfict)
Victorian science fiction was characterized by fear about ‘progress’ rather than hope, with negative perceptions evident in its subgenres:
- Mad Scientists and Their Monsters: Explored the dangers of scientific overreach, warning against the blindness of scientific research concerning moral issues (e.g., Dr. Frankenstein).
- Imaginary Voyages and Journeys: Featured the discovery of ‘lost worlds,’ extraterrestrial worlds, and alien visits.
- Utopias/Dystopias
- Apocalyptic Tales: Depicted the world reaching a point of absolute darkness and absolute zero.
Crime and Detective Fiction
Crime and detective fiction experienced a revival in the 1830s due to the rise of criminality in London. Early novels had a romantic style, portraying criminals as likable, adventurous figures involved in melodramatic stories with understandable motives, often oppressed by the powerful. Crime also found its way into mainstream novels during the early and mid-Victorian period. A key feature was that crime became an enigma to be solved, reflecting a psychological, ideological, or sociological interpretation of the genre. The rise of the glamorous private detective, more effective than the police, marked a new stage in this evolution. Oliver Twist by Charles Dickens is a notable example.
Crime and Detective Fiction in Sherlock Holmes
In Sherlock Holmes stories, Arthur Conan Doyle aimed to transform detection in fiction into ‘something nearer to an exact science.’ The detective is portrayed as an empirical observer analyzing material ‘proof’ in a manner similar to how biologists and geologists reconstruct the history of the world without external input. Doyle’s character, Sherlock Holmes, was influenced by the author’s knowledge of biological pathology, anthropometry, forensic sciences (forensic medicine, photography, fingerprinting, toxicology), and their previous use by Edgar Allan Poe.
Physiognomy and Phrenology
The development of techniques to analyze internal features of the mind through the observation of external features of the body was central to Physiognomy, as proposed by Lavater. Phrenology, proposed by Gall, stipulated that over thirty propensities, sentiments, and intellectual faculties could be detected through careful study of the shape of the cranium. The brain was seen as divided into multiple ‘mini-brains’ that determined the power of these different faculties (natural dispositions or propensities) to influence psychological traits, although consciousness could override or rebalance its inherent structuring. The two hemispheres were believed to interact, with one acting as the sentinel of the other, representing different dimensions, and functioning independently. Brontë studied phrenology and incorporated it into her character development.