Literary Theory and Criticism: From Plato to the Neoclassical Era
Plato
In a strict sense, literary theory is the systematic study of the nature of literature and the methods for analyzing it. Literary criticism is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often informed by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of its methods and goals. Critical theory is a school of thought that stresses the examination and critique of society and culture by applying knowledge from the social sciences and the humanities.
Plato’s *Republic* systematically discusses various subjects, excluding poets from his ideal society. He believed that poets use imagination and tell lies about gods, creating a copy of a copy of reality. He saw poetry as a form of madness and believed poets misrepresent reality, making their work attractive but ultimately harmful, especially to the young. Plato emphasized that God is just and right, and he introduced the concept of mimesis, or imitation. He believed in the theory of forms or ideals and held a utilitarian view, arguing that art should serve the government.
Aristotle
Aristotle’s views on literature include:
- Three kinds of poetry: lyric, epic, and dramatic.
- Catharsis: the purging of emotions through art.
- We react to how we are shown.
- Form is important, and content is not everything.
- Kinds of mimesis: literature imitates men in action, either better (tragedy) or worse (comedy).
- Humans enjoy imitation and learn from it.
- Writers of tragedy are superior to writers of comedy.
- Definition of tragedy: a representation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude.
- Tragedy, while exciting emotions, somehow controls them.
- Elements of tragedy: plot, character, theme, diction, spectacle, and song.
- Organic unity: all parts of a work must be interconnected.
- Difference between historian and poet: historians deal with particular facts, while poets deal with universal truths.
- Definition of a tragic hero: a character of noble stature who falls due to a tragic flaw.
- Unity of time, place, and action: a play should have a single action represented as occurring in a single place and within a single day.
Horace
Horace combined elements of Plato and Aristotle’s ideas:
- Less concerned with philosophical concepts and more with practical advice.
- *Ars Poetica* (The Art of Poetry).
- A play should have five acts.
- An imitative artist should regard human life (Aristotle’s view).
- Poets must be born with some ability, nature, and originality, but too much originality is dangerous (Plato’s view).
- Avoid purple prose, follow proven models, polish lines, and be clear and consistent, guided by discipline and self-criticism.
- Decorum: appropriateness of style to subject matter (high/low form, high/low content).
- Organic unity.
- No mixing of genres (Aristotle’s unity of action).
- No *deus ex machina*.
- Violence should be reported, not shown.
- The aim of poets is to profit (Plato’s view) or delight (Aristotle’s view) or to provide delightful teaching.
- Poetry should not be in the service of any code.
- Literature is constructive, as Aristotle believed.
- *In medias res* (starting in the middle of the action).
- Decorum, delightful teaching, and imitation of classical models are the heart of Renaissance literary theory.
Longinus
- Chief interest was in Greek literature, seeking features that stood the test of time.
- Focused on how to create a masterpiece.
- Sublimity marks true greatness.
- He liked purple prose.
- The gift of genius may be innate but must be trained.
- Art is constructive, like Horace and Aristotle believed.
- Definition of the sublime: an inherent quality that lifts our souls, elevating us with a sense of proud possession, filling us with joy as if we had produced what we heard.
- To be truly beautiful and sublime, it must please all men at all times.
- Five sources of sublimity: elevated thought, emotion, rhetorical figures, notable language, and style.
The Middle Ages and Renaissance
The Middle Ages (7th to 15th centuries) saw religious literature in Latin, focused on teaching, echoing Plato’s ideas. The Renaissance marked the rebirth of classical learning. Christianity was adopted as the universal religion by the Church of Rome. Virgil’s *Aeneid* was prominent. Imaginative literature was often criticized for telling lies. Dante and Boccaccio were notable figures.
Sir Philip Sidney
- *An Apology for Poetry* (also known as *The Defence of Poesy*) combined ideas from Plato, Aristotle, and Horace.
- Poetry is constructive.
- Answered Stephen Gosson, who was sympathetic to Puritans and believed poetry was dangerous.
- Sidney argued that poetry is an art of imitation to teach and delight, a speaking picture, a better version of reality; nature’s world is brazen, and the poet makes it golden.
- The goal of this teaching is that we do good deeds, referring to catharsis.
- Plato’s goal in rejecting poetry was due to the negative things poets said about God.
- He did not criticize any specific work.
- He admired *Gorboduc*.
- He believed in decorum and respecting ancient examples.
- The artist is the best critic.
John Dryden
- A practical, liberal neoclassical critic during the Restoration period.
- Followed Horatian doctrine: decorum, delightful teaching, and obeying the past.
- *Essay of Dramatic Poesy* features four characters discussing drama.
- Definition of a play: a just and lively image of human nature, representing its passions and the changes of fortune to which it is subject, for the delight and instruction of mankind.
- He loved Shakespeare and admired Ben Jonson.
Alexander Pope
- A neoclassical critic.
- *Essay on Criticism*.
- Nature means rules, laws, reason, order, and universality.
- Advised poets to copy ancient writers because they established the rules of imitating nature.
- Classical writers and nature are the same; to copy nature is to copy them.
- Avoid originality.
- Criticized metaphysical style for being artificial and against nature.
- Emphasized common sense (being in the middle way) and good taste (a recipe for restraint).
- Classical criticism is the golden age of criticism.
- Did not approve of slavish imitation of French critics or the liberal attitude of his English contemporaries; instead, he took a moderate approach, linking the laws of nature and common sense.
- His advice is too general.
Joseph Addison
- Focused on the greatness of literature or the sublime.
- A classical scholar.
- His audience was the general public.
- *The Tatler* and *The Spectator*.
- Famous as the British Virgil.
- Brought philosophy from the closet to the tea table.
- Greatness or the sublime comes from great ideas and emotions.