Locke and Descartes: Key Concepts
State of Nature
A situation in which individuals exist before forming a civil society through a social contract. In this state, they are governed by natural moral law, granting them rights to life, liberty, equality, independence, and ownership, along with corresponding duties and the power to enforce the law.
Legitimate Government
The representation of the community once formed, chosen by the majority, and governing according to the public good.
Law
The rule guiding human actions. Locke distinguishes between:
Natural Law
Also known as natural moral law, it governs the state of nature and equates to the law of reason. It dictates that all are equal and independent, and none should harm another’s life, health, liberty, or property. It also grants individuals the power to enforce this law.
Positive Law
Derived from natural law, it is the civil law of society, established by the legislature. Unless otherwise specified, “law” in this context refers to positive law.
Freedom
In the natural state, individuals are not subject to any power but themselves and natural law. Civil society is seen as the best protector of freedom.
Majority
The legitimate decision-making method in civil society. Unless stated otherwise, it refers to a simple majority, with qualified majorities used when necessary.
Absolute Monarchy
A government where power is concentrated in a single person, tending towards despotism. Locke believes it is inconsistent with legitimate civil power, akin to the state of nature due to the lack of an impartial judicial authority. This allows individuals to defend themselves against abuses of power under such a monarchy.
Ownership
A natural right encompassing one’s life, liberty, and property. The foundation of private property is labor.
Power
The ability to establish and execute law in the natural state. These natural powers are delegated to political society’s bodies. Locke identifies three types:
Legislative Power
Held by the parliament, it defines laws and their punishments.
Executive Power
Exercised by the government, it enforces the law.
Federative Power
Held by community representatives, it manages relations with other communities.
Political or Civil Society
A community founded on consent, forming a single political body with a common law and judicial authority for conflict resolution.
Descartes’ Terminology
Soul (Res Cogitans)
A spiritual, simple, and immortal substance with a finite beginning. Independent of the body, it is the principle of consciousness and more easily known than the body.
Certainty
The act of recognizing a truth’s clarity and distinctness. It is the basis of evidence, though certainty can be false if based on a mistake.
Clarity and Distinction
Characteristics of evidence, essential to Descartes’ method. Clarity is transparent and evident, while distinction is precise and unmistakable. Only clear and distinct ideas are admitted by reason.
Body (Res Extensa)
The material substance, limited by shape, occupying space, and measurable. Like a machine, it is composed of moving parts, making it finite and mortal.