Ludwig Wittgenstein: Life, Works, and Philosophical Contributions
Socio-Economic-Political Context
World War I (1914-1918)
The Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey) clashed with the Allies (France, Great Britain, Russia, UK). Sparked by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary in Sarajevo, the war stemmed from Germany’s desire for European and colonial dominance. Germany declared war on France and Russia in August 1914, invading Belgium, and prompting declarations of war from Japan and England. Trench warfare dominated the conflict for nearly three years. In 1918, an Allied general attack led Germany to sign an armistice. The war resulted in eight million deaths, the dissolution of three empires (German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian), and the creation of new nations (Czechoslovakia, Poland, Finland).
The Russian Revolution
This revolution marked the first implementation of Marxist principles. A Marxist workers’ party seized power from the Tsar. Following Lenin’s death, Stalin’s leadership brought stricter policies to the Soviet Union, including purges of dissidents and the collectivization of agriculture. European intellectuals were divided, with some viewing it as a social utopia realized, while others saw it as an assault on freedom.
The Great Depression (1929)
The 1920s saw a rise in the European economy, parliamentary democracy, and improved living conditions, including shorter working hours, increased leisure time, social security, and expanded compulsory education. However, political tensions within parliamentary systems and lagging agricultural sectors created underlying instability. Europe relied on US loans, and the 1929 Wall Street Crash triggered a major capitalist crisis.
The Rise of Fascism
In response to worker and peasant movements, fascist regimes emerged in Italy under Mussolini and in Germany under Hitler. These regimes implemented measures such as eliminating opposition, dissolving parliaments and trade unions, utilizing propaganda, controlling education, centralizing power, and pursuing expansionist foreign policies.
World War II (1939-1945)
The Axis powers (Germany, Italy, Japan) fought against the Allies (US, USSR, England, France, China). The war’s origins lay in German resentment over the Treaty of Versailles, the rise of fascism, the economic crisis, and the militarization of Germany and Italy. In 1945, the Allies converged on Germany. Hitler committed suicide, and Germany surrendered unconditionally on May 8th. Following the US atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan surrendered on September 2nd. The war resulted in over 50 million deaths, widespread destruction, and the Holocaust, which claimed the lives of six million Jews. Two superpowers emerged: the United States and the Soviet Union.
The Cold War
The USSR emerged from WWII as a major power, while Europe was weakened. The USSR spread communism to Eastern European countries, while the US championed capitalism and democracy. This ideological rivalry shaped international relations, leading to an arms race and the threat of nuclear war. The United Nations, created in 1945, aimed to maintain peace, promote international relations, and uphold human rights.
Decolonization
In the latter half of the 20th century, Western European powers focused on economic policy and military strength, forming alliances like NATO (1949) and the European Economic Community (1957). Communist parties established People’s Democratic Republics in Eastern Europe. Weakened by war and rising nationalism, European powers faced anti-colonial wars in Africa and Asia.
Cultural and Philosophical Shifts
Urbanization and consumerism shaped society, with mass media (radio, press, photography, television, cinema) wielding significant influence. Science and technology advanced rapidly, particularly in transportation. New social movements emerged (feminism, hippies, environmentalists), advocating for change, including women’s rights. New musical genres like jazz, rock, and pop gained popularity. Art saw new trends like Surrealism, Dadaism, and Cubism, challenging traditional aesthetics.
Philosophical Trends
- Vitalism: Emphasis on life (Ortega y Gasset)
- Phenomenology: Study of consciousness (Husserl, Heidegger)
- Existentialism: Focus on existence (Sartre)
- Philosophy of Science: (Popper, Kuhn)
- Critical Theory: Critique of ideologies and social problems (Frankfurt School)
- Analysis of Language: (Wittgenstein, analytic movement, hermeneutics)
Ludwig Wittgenstein: Life and Works
Born in Vienna in 1889 to a wealthy family, Wittgenstein studied engineering before focusing on mathematical logic at Cambridge in 1911, influenced by Bertrand Russell and G.E. Moore. His early work investigated the foundations of mathematics and logic, building upon the work of Euclid, Frege, and Russell. He served in WWI and was a prisoner of war until 1919. During this time, he wrote Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, published in 1921, which became highly influential among logical positivists. From 1920-1926, Wittgenstein worked as a teacher in an Austrian village. Returning to Cambridge in 1929, he began his later philosophical period, holding the Chair of Philosophy from 1939 to 1947. His lectures, compiled by students in the Blue and Brown Books, disseminated his evolving ideas. He died of cancer in 1951. His later work, Philosophical Investigations, was published posthumously in 1953.
Introduction to Wittgenstein’s Thought
Fractures in Understanding Logos
In ancient Greece, ‘logos’ encompassed three meanings: cosmos (the world), thought, and language. Modern philosophy, beginning in the 17th century, saw a fracture in this unity. This break arose from the focus on the possibility of knowledge and the awareness of the knowing subject. The 20th century witnessed a second fracture, questioning how language, thought, and words capture the world. This led to a shift towards linguistic philosophy, focusing on the structure of language and its role in shaping our understanding of the world.
Two Moments in 20th-Century Philosophy
- Formalism (1900-1930): Logical positivism sought an ideal or perfect language. Influenced by Bertrand Russell’s logical atomism, Wittgenstein’s Tractatus exemplified this approach.
- Anti-Formalism (post-1930): Analytic philosophy focused on ordinary language and its use in various contexts. Wittgenstein’s Philosophical Investigations marked a shift towards this approach.
Wittgenstein’s work significantly impacted both periods of analytic philosophy. He challenged the tenets of logical positivism, particularly its emphasis on a single, verifiable language. His later work highlighted the diversity of language games and their role in shaping our understanding of the world. Wittgenstein’s ideas also influenced the development of science and intersected with other philosophical currents like vitalism, phenomenology, and existentialism.