Ludwig Wittgenstein’s Philosophy of Language: From Logic to Pragmatics
The philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein’s thought must be framed within Bertrand Russell’s analytical tradition, inspired by positivist empiricism. Russell, Wittgenstein’s mentor, developed an interest in mathematics that led to the concept of figurative language. Wittgenstein, influenced by G.E. Moore, also became interested in issues of moral character. Wittgenstein believed that philosophy should be based on the analysis of language. For him, logical language immediately reveals the logical structure of facts. However, Wittgenstein gradually distanced himself theoretically from Russell and felt more aligned with Moore’s ethical conception of language.
Wittgenstein’s *Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus*
Ludwig Wittgenstein’s *Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus* aims to delineate the limits of what language can express through statements and what cannot be explained linguistically but only shown. The starting point and focus of the work is language. In the *Tractatus*, a distinction is made between a perfect, logically constructed language and natural language. The book is structured as a series of logical statements. It presents a dual critique: one against traditional metaphysical concepts, which arise from misinterpretations of language, and another against the logic of Russell’s *Principia Mathematica*.
The Early Conception: Language as Logic
In his initial conception of language, Wittgenstein considered logical language as the ideal. This reflects the modern ideal of constructing a “logical-mathematical deductive thinking,” an analytical ideal where accepting the premises necessitates accepting the consequences. These ideas were developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to solve mathematical problems. The “new logic” aimed to create an unequivocal language, striving to “build a language that functions like algebra.” Wittgenstein sought to construct the perfect language based on “logical relations.”
Logic and the World
In this framework, the language of signs used in logic is decisive. Russell had developed a very effective language. Logic is transcendental; we cannot describe the world without incorporating the logical structures of language. Logical propositions can be elementary, consisting of names and referring to “states of affairs,” or complex, referring to facts. The world is the totality of facts, and its limit is the limit of language. The truth table is a decision method that allows us to determine if a proposition is a tautology, a contingency, or a contradiction. Logical space comprises all possible combinations that the world could have.
Figurative Theory of Meaning
Regarding the “figurative theory of meaning,” Wittgenstein posits that language is the totality of propositions, and a proposition models reality as we imagine it. The correlations between proposition and reality are preserved in the same way. Thinking is a projection that effectuates these correlations: “We cannot express in words what we are thinking.”
Mathematics and science are considered languages, while the rest is metaphorical language used to say and show. The mystical (that which shows itself) belongs to the realm of what is shown. The propositions of the *Tractatus* belong to this realm.
The Later Conception: Language as Pragmatic
Wittgenstein’s second, pragmatic conception of language arose from his observations of children, which revealed the limitations of his earlier view. This later conception rejects the idea of a private language, arguing that a language based on self-created private rules would be incomprehensible to others and therefore could not be a language. This serves as a critique of ostensive definitions, which, while important in language learning, are insufficient. These definitions prepare for the use of words in communicative situations, leading Wittgenstein to question his initial conception of language.
Language in Use
In the pragmatic conception, language is seen as a practice embedded in human life, gaining meaning through interaction with other vital human activities, namely communication. There are multiple uses of language, including the figurative. The meaning of language is based on the rules governing its use within a society.
Language Games
Wittgenstein used the term “language games” to refer to simple cases of language use, which can help us understand more complex uses. He extended the concept of “language games” to encompass all of language and its related activities.
Understanding Meaning
Finally, understanding the meaning of a word entails knowing the rules for its use. The pragmatic rule of meaning is a process for analyzing and clarifying the meaning of signs. Operationalism generalizes this rule to encompass the meaning of theoretical terms within scientific theories. Behaviorism tends to reduce the meaning of a sign to its effect in communication. This second conception of language is based on learning through use and is therefore more natural.