Major Events and Key Figures of the Old Testament
The Three Great Crises
The Assyrian Threat: Assyria Rules Over Israel
Relevant prophets include Amos, Hosea, 1st Isaiah, Micah, Zephaniah, Nahum, and Habakkuk.
The Babylonian Crisis: Babylon Rules Over Israel
Relevant prophets include Jeremiah, Obadiah, Ezekiel, 2nd Isaiah, Haggai, and Zechariah.
The Postexilic Readjustment: Persian Rule Over Israel
Relevant prophets include 3rd Isaiah, Joel, Malachi, and Jonah.
Major Prophets and Their Teachings
Amos
Amos was the first book that the scribes compiled in book form. Jeroboam II allowed idolatry and injustice. Amos condemned the neighboring countries and Israelite leaders for inhumane treatment and corruption. In particular, Amos condemned the unequal distribution of national wealth. He delivered three sermons, reminding us that everything that happens is caused by Yahweh, whether blessings or curses. Before Amos, the Day of Yahweh was considered a day of rejoicing, but Amos reversed this outlook so that it became a Day of Judgment, a period of grief for sinful Israel.
Hosea
Hosea was a native son of Israel, the only Israelite prophet whose words have survived in a canon. His unfaithful marriage to a prostitute named Gomer mirrored the relationship between God and Israel. Gomer committed various adulteries, but Hosea still had patience with her and reunited with her. Hosea pointed out certain punishments that the Israelites were to receive, such as exile to Assyria and Egypt. He argued that Yahweh would remember his people and would give them time and opportunity to reconcile their mistakes.
Isaiah
First Isaiah includes advice that Isaiah made to the kings, urging them to place their trust in Yahweh rather than forming alliances with neighboring countries. He also made the prophecy of Emmanuel. Second Isaiah was written during the Babylonian exile. The author changed, and the tone shifted from words of doom and grief to peace and hope. Third Isaiah, with another change in authorship, talks about the reconstruction of Judah after the exile.
Isaiah 1-39
Isaiah condemned Jerusalem for its rebellion, idolatry, and injustice. He said that a purifying fire would burn away all the unnecessary and create a new Jerusalem. Isaiah viewed God sitting on His throne in the temple. God’s holiness, in the form of burning coal, burned Isaiah not to destroy him but to purify him. Isaiah was given the task to continue to announce the judgment, where he said that Israel would be like a burnt stump of chopped wood (Holy Seed). Assyria and Babylon would take over King Ahaz of Israel, but God would provide another King called Immanuel (God with us). Isaiah predicted the fall of Assyria, Babylon, and its neighbors. In the Tale of Two Cities, the Lofty City would be ruined because it set itself above God. Isaiah condemned the alliances with Egypt and Babylon, who would destroy Israel. Hezekiah had protected Israel from the Assyrian threat by praying to God but later allied with Babylon.
Isaiah 40-66
The Babylonian Exile was over, so the Israelites could return to Jerusalem. The Israelites had lost faith during the exile, making them question Yahweh’s power. Yahweh responded by saying that it was for Israel’s sake. Although Yahweh wanted the Israelites to be His servants to spread his name over the nations, the Israelites were still unfaithful. Yahweh, therefore, chose another “servant” to do the mission (Jesus). Those who accept Jesus (servants) will inherit God’s Kingdom (New Jerusalem), and those who reject (wicked) will be removed from God’s city forever.
Micah
Micah was a rural prophet who condemned idolatry, social injustice, and the corruption of the wealthy and corrupted prophets. He expressed skepticism of the Temple Cults, such as sacrifices, and thought the sanctuary would not protect the city from harm. He prophesied the destruction of the Temple and City and the arrival of Jesus by saying that a future ruler would come from Bethlehem.
Zephaniah
Zephaniah prophesied during King Josiah’s reign. Like Amos, Zephaniah said that the Day of Yahweh would be a day when all life forms would be exterminated except some humble people. He condemned the unjust leaders of Jerusalem. Those who seek righteousness and humility would be spared.
Nahum
Nahum was a prophet who celebrated the fall of Nineveh (capital of Assyria) caused by the Babylonians. He portrayed Yahweh as a divine avenger who took vengeance on Nineveh for its cruelty against Israel. Nahum vividly described the destruction of Nineveh using floods, fire, and violence.
Habakkuk
Habakkuk prophesied during the rise of Babylon. His book features dialogues between the prophet and Yahweh. Habakkuk questioned Yahweh about the suffering of the righteous and the success of the wicked. Yahweh responded by saying that the wicked are His instruments and justice will eventually be made. “The righteous shall live by their faith.” He portrayed Yahweh as a warrior who will bring justice to the world.
Jeremiah
Jeremiah prophesied during the final years of Judah and the Babylonian exile. He condemned the Israelites for idolatry, describing it as adultery. Jeremiah also accused the leaders of injustices and not following the covenant. He condemned the ambivalence of the Israelites, where inside the temple, they worshipped Yahweh as if everything was fine, but outside, they did things like child sacrifices. Babylon would conquer Israel for 70 years. Although Jeremiah begged the authorities to humble themselves, he was rejected. After the exile, Yahweh would gather His people, promising restoration (New Covenant: Yahweh’s law would be written in the hearts of the people rather than on stone). Jeremiah’s Confessions are a series of reflections where he reveals the burden of his prophetic mission. God would use Babylon to judge Hazor, Damascus, Jerusalem, Ammon, Philistia, Moab, Edom, and Egypt. God would also judge Babylon due to idolatry.
Obadiah
Obadiah predicted Edom’s downfall, who betrayed Israel during the Babylonian invasion. Israel would reclaim the land.
Ezekiel
Ezekiel was a prophet during the time of exiles from Babylon, where he saw the Glory (Kavod) of God in a Divine Chariot. The Israelites thought of Kavod as the physical manifestation of God. Ezekiel condemned people for idolatry and social injustice. Particularly, he predicted the fall of Jerusalem and the temple. Ezekiel performed various sign acts as a way to show the Israelites their sin. He saw God’s chariot leave Israel and go to Babylon due to covenant violation. Ezekiel represented Israel as a burnt stick, a rebellious wife, a dangerous lion, and two sensual sisters. He served as a lawyer who determined Israel’s sins as irrefutable. Babylon would destroy Egypt and Tyre due to their idolatry. God promised a “New David” who would be the messianic King. In the Valley of Dry Bones, Ezekiel saw a field of bones coming back to life, symbolizing the New Israel with New Hearts. Gog, which is the description of the Kings of Tyre and Egypt, disrupted God’s plans to purify Israel. God destroyed them with earthquakes and fire, defeating evil nations. Ezekiel viewed a new temple where the chariot returned. A stream poured out from the temple to the Dead Sea to make it a living sea. Individual responsibility.
Haggai
The Israelites were discouraged after their exile from Babylon. Haggai urged the people and the priests to rebuild Jerusalem’s Temple.
Zechariah
The book of Zechariah is divided into two sections. First Zechariah addresses the eight visions of the Israelites. Also, Yahweh removed Joshua’s dirty clothes and changed them into clean ones, meaning they had been purified. Second Zechariah declares that the Messiah will be humble.
Joel
Joel interpreted a locust plague as Yahweh’s anger and urged the Israelites to repent. Yahweh ended the plague after repentance. The plague and foreign invasions meant that the Day of Yahweh would come. Godless countries would be summoned to the Valley of Decision, hosting a war of Good (Judah) vs. Evil. Judah would lose, but God promised that this would never happen again and promised unprecedented blessings.
Malachi
Yahweh would send a messenger who would prepare His people for the Day of Yahweh. Malachi criticized the formal sacrifices. He said that God would send Elijah to reconcile the generations.
Jonah
God summoned Jonah to warn the citizens of Nineveh of impending judgment. Jonah was a coward, so he hopped on a boat that went to Tarshish. A giant fish swallowed him and spewed him out. God sent him again to Nineveh, where he took three days to go, and Jonah was surprised to see the Assyrians’ reaction: they immediately repented. Yahweh decided not to obliterate them.
Other Important Books
Psalms
Psalms is a collection of 150 poems traditionally attributed to King David but made by various authors over time. It explores the covenantal relationship of God and Israel, trust in God, divine justice, and hope for redemption. God will send a future Messianic King to defeat evil. Categories of Psalms include:
- Hymns or songs of praise: Celebrating God’s greatness and creation
- Thanksgiving psalms: Expressing gratitude for God’s blessings
- Laments: Prayers that seek God’s help
- Royal Psalms: Celebrating the King as God’s anointed one and reaffirming the Davidic covenant
- Psalms of Blessing and Cursing: Rewards for the righteous and punishments for the wicked
- Enthronement Psalms: Extolling Yahweh as King of all the nations
- Wisdom Psalms: Living a righteous life and fear of the Lord
Wisdom Literature in Kethuvim
Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes guide people on how to live a righteous life.
Proverbs
Proverbs is attributed to Solomon. It is a collection of sayings focused on moral behavior. Themes include wisdom vs. folly, righteousness, and justice. Lady Wisdom provides guidance and protection for those who follow her. The teachings of Amenenope parallel those presented in Proverbs. These shared teachings emphasize the universality of wisdom that transcends cultures.
Job
Job explores human suffering, divine justice, and God’s governance. Job, a righteous and prosperous man, suddenly lost everything he had. His friends who came to comfort him argued that he must have received suffering as a punishment for a hidden sin he had committed. Job argued his innocence and demanded an explanation from God.
Structure:
- Prologue: Introduces the bet that God made with Satan, where God tells Satan that Job will endure any suffering and where Satan argues that he will not. His wife also rebukes Job by telling him to curse God.
- Dialogues: Consist of discussions between Job and his friends, Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar. Each friend presents different arguments about why Job has received suffering as a punishment for sin.
- Elihu’s speeches: Elihu, a fourth character, explains that the suffering might not be just a result of sins but a test or correction from God. This response did not satisfy Job, which caused God to speak directly with Job through a whirlwind. God does not answer Job’s questions directly but explains the vastness of His plans and the limitations of human comprehension.
- Job’s resolution: Job acknowledges his limits and submits himself to God. After doing so, he is as healthy and prosperous as ever before.
Festival Scrolls (Megillot)
Each book is tied to a Jewish festival.
Ruth
Ruth explores loyalty and redemption through the story of Ruth, Naomi, and Boaz. Elimelech was Naomi’s husband. Ruth became one of Yahweh’s people (Line of David). Read during Shavuoth.
Song of Songs
Song of Songs is an erotic poem that explores God’s love for Israel and Christ’s love for the church. Read during the Passover. It elevates love to a cosmic force and celebrates both human and divine love.
Lamentations
Lamentations is a series of five poetic laments about the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem. Read during Tisha B’Av. It reveals that the sin of the Israelites caused the destruction but still includes hope that Yahweh will show pity and mercy.
Esther
Mordecai refused to bow down before Haman and decided to exterminate the entire Jewish race. Haman told Ahasuerus (King) that they were a threat to the empire. Esther, who became the queen of Persia, risked her life to save her people from Haman’s plan. Celebrated during Purim. Mordecai was the adopted father of Esther. The Feast of Purim celebrates the reversal of Jewish Fortune.
Ecclesiastes
Ecclesiastes is a deeply philosophical book attributed to Qoheleth. He questions the value of wisdom, work, pleasure, and the meaning of life. It offers skeptical views on human efforts, highlighting the inevitability of death. Read during Sukkot.
- Vanity of Vanities: All is vanity, a recurring theme throughout the book.
- Limitations of Human Wisdom: Qoheleth discusses the paradox that while wisdom is preferable to folly, it ultimately cannot describe life’s uncertainties and cannot alter the fate where both foolish and wise end up in death.
- Inevitability of Death: Since death is inevitable, all achievements in life are meaningless, and Qoheleth advises enjoying the simple pleasures of life, such as eating.
- Qoheleth’s meaning of life: Qoheleth concludes that we have to serve God, fear Him, and follow His commandments.
Ezra
Persian King Cyrus allowed the Israelites out of Babylon. A leader named Zerubbabel led the Israelites, reconstructing the temple. The Israelites who had never been to exile offered help to construct the temple, but Zerubbabel refused. 60 years later, Persian King Artaxerxes appointed Ezra to lead another wave of people back to Israel. Ezra led the Israelites back to Israel with hopes of social and spiritual restoration, only to encounter the Israelites marrying non-exilic and non-Israelites. He made a law of divorce to maintain religious purity. Ezra publicly read the Law to the community (covenant restoration).
Nehemiah
When Nehemiah heard about the ruined state of the walls of Jerusalem, he got permission from the Persian King Artaxerxes to go to Jerusalem. When Nehemiah started building the walls, other Israelites who had already settled opposed the building of the walls, but Nehemiah refused, creating conflict between them. After building the walls, he met with Ezra to have a 7-day Torah marathon for spiritual renewal, celebrating the construction at the end. He focused on the Sabbath so that nobody worked during the day, supported the temple, and banned foreign marriages.
Apocalyptic Literature
Apocalyptic literature explores themes of divine intervention in human history, cosmic dualism (Good vs. Evil), eschatological (final times and day of judgment) focus, and faithfulness even in times of persecution.
Daniel
Daniel and his four friends were brought to Babylon. In Babylon, Daniel interpreted the dream of the statue with four types of metal. Fiery furnace. Nebuchadnezzar became a wild person but later humbled himself before God and was restored as king. Belshazzar was warned by the letters in the wall but didn’t humble himself, resulting in his death. Lion’s Den. Four beasts and a super beast. The time of exile was extended seven times due to the sins of the Israelites.
Chronicles
Chronicles reiterates the messages from the past books to give hope for the coming of a messiah (Davidic Covenant) and the new temple. It mentions several genealogies that relate to David and the priests. David serves a pivotal role in preparing the construction of the Temple, where most of the negative stories are kept out (Bathsheba). In 2 Chronicles, King Manasseh, who introduced idolatry, repents and restores his throne after being held captive in Assyria. King Josiah makes religious reforms such as celebrating the Passover, removing idolatry, restoring the temple and covenant, etc. Kings who obey God are blessed, while the ones who don’t are not. It concludes with hope when King Cyrus lets the Israelites back to Israel.
Deuterocanonical Books (Apocrypha)
These are texts included in the Septuagint but not in the Hebrew Bible. In times of Hellenism, there were Judeans who adopted Hellenism and Judeans who strictly followed the Mosaic code.
1 & 2 Maccabees
Antiochus IV Epiphanes imposed the “Abomination of Desolation,” where he banned Jewish traditions and forced Judeans to worship their gods like Zeus. In response to this oppression, the Maccabees (Mattathias and Judas) revolted, which is now celebrated as Hanukkah. 2 Maccabees emphasized Martyrdom, which says that those who died for their faith will have eternal life.
Tobit
Tobit is a faithful Jew living in Nineveh who loses his sight and faces poverty. Tobit remains faithful. Tobias, Tobit’s son, marries Sarah to defeat Asmodeus, a demon, with the help of Raphael.
Judith
Judith is a Jew in a Judean city. She kills Assyrian King Holofernes using her beauty and cunning, saving the people of her city.
Baruch
The story of the Jewish people reflecting on their exile in Babylon. They acknowledge their sins, confess their disobedience, and plead for forgiveness. Baruch reminds them that true wisdom comes from God and that following the Torah is the path to restoration. The book closes with a hopeful vision: restore Jerusalem’s glory.
Ecclesiasticus
A collection of wisdom sayings that emphasize conduct, humility, and respect for the law.
Wisdom of Solomon
This book blends Jewish and Greek ideas about immortality, wisdom, and divine justice. It personifies wisdom as a divine force.
2 Esdras
Written after the destruction of the 2nd temple. It talks about the end of the world, judgment, and hope for restoration.