Manufacturing Processes and Materials: Properties and Applications
Manufacturing Processes and Materials
Key Definitions
- Process: The set of activities ordered to achieve a particular goal.
- Manufacturing: A group of organized activities scheduled for the processing of materials, objects, or services into articles or services useful to society.
- Material: A substance used to produce any element.
- Efficiency: The numerical relationship between the amount achieved by a system and the maximum amount that the system can achieve.
- Effectiveness: Estimating the fulfillment of objectives, purposes, or functions of a system or process, without any numerical evaluation or predetermined standards.
General Process Model
Input: Material, Energy, Information → Process → Output: Product + Waste Material, Energy, Information
Classification of Materials
- Metals: Steel, cast iron, non-ferrous metals.
- Non-Metals: Plastics, ceramics.
Basic Characteristics of Metals
Metals crystallize into defined structures, are ductile and malleable, rust, and conduct electricity and energy.
Characteristics of Non-Metals
Non-metals do not crystallize, are fragile, act as insulators, and form anhydrides.
Characteristics of Ceramics
Ceramics crystallize into complex structures, are brittle, insulating, and compression-resistant.
Characteristics of Plastics
Plastics have linear structures based on carbon. They deform and do not return to their original form. They are insulating to some voltages. There are thermoplastics and thermosets.
Forging Mild Steel
A piece of mild steel (0.2% carbon) can be forged by heating it to 900°C and deforming it with blows.
Steel vs. Cast Iron
Steel: 0 to 2% carbon, ductile.
Cast Iron: 2 to 4.3% carbon, not easily deformed.
Types of Deformations
- Elastic Deformation: The material deforms and returns to its original state (e.g., a spring).
- Plastic Deformation: The material is deformed and does not return to its original form.
- Brittle Fracture: The material breaks (e.g., glass).
- Ductile Fracture: The material deforms before breaking (e.g., a 0.2% carbon steel shaft).
- Mixture: A combination of elements (e.g., concrete).
Aluminum Extrusion
To obtain a package from an aluminum disc, the process of reverse extrusion is used. The disc is placed upside down, and a piston forces the metal to flow countercurrently.
Lamination Process
Lamination involves passing a material through rollers to reduce its thickness, for example, to create sheets.
Lost Wax Process
In the lost wax process, a wax mold is placed in a box and surrounded by sand. Liquid material is added, followed by small feet entering, making it difficult to handle.
Machining Processes
- Turning: Creates cylindrical parts, such as shafts.
- Drilling: Creates openings, holes, and perforations.
- Milling: Creates horizontal parts.
Electro-Erosion Process
Electro-erosion is used to create tools and parts by removing material through electronic discharge.
Electromagnetic Energy Application
Electromagnetic energy is used in the operation of motors and drills.
Tempering
Tempering is a heat treatment process used to harden materials, typically steels with more than 0.45% carbon. It is necessary to relieve residual stresses after hardening.
Cementation
Cementation is the process of adding carbon to the periphery of a piece.
Cutting Tool Materials
- High-Speed Steel: Vanadium steel.
- Metal Carbides: Tungsten carbide.
- Diamond: Natural carbon crystallization.
Comparison of Materials
Refer to the characteristics of metals (point 4), ceramics (point 6), and plastics (point 7) for a comparison.
Wire Drawing
Wire drawing is the process of reducing the diameter of a material by means of a die. It is used to produce wires.
Extrusion Products
Extrusion is used to produce items such as beer cans and toothpaste tubes.
Electrochemical Process
The electrochemical process involves depositing a layer of material, such as Zn, Al, Mg, or Sn, onto a piece. An example is the application of a zinc layer on iron for food packaging (tin-plated steel).
Magnetostriction
Magnetostriction is the property of some materials to increase their volume when subjected to a magnetic force.
Piezoelectric Effect
The piezoelectric effect is the ability of certain materials to transform mechanical energy into electrical energy. It is used in the production of waves and in thermocouples.
Electrical Energy Production in Chile
The electrical energy produced in Chile is approximately 11,883.8 mW (SIC: 4695 mW, SING: 3593 mW, others: 3583 mW).
Energy-Related Institutions in Chile
Ministry of Energy, Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Economy, CONAMA (National Commission on Energy and Environment).
Energy Classification
Primary Energy, Secondary Energy.
Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy.
Environmental Impact Statement
An Environmental Impact Statement is required for smaller projects, such as non-electrical or mining projects.
Environmental Impact Studies
Environmental Impact Studies are required for larger projects.
Renewable Energy Transformation
- Wind: Air rotates the blades, which turn an axis connected to a motor.
- Solar: Heat is produced by thermal collectors, and electricity is generated through photovoltaic panels.
- Geothermal: Hydrothermal systems store water at high pressure and temperature beneath the Earth’s crust in permeable rock near a heat source. Hot rock systems are formed by layers of impermeable rock overlying a heat source. To utilize the latter, cold water is injected and used once heated.
- Biomass: Electric cogeneration plants utilize energy waste (black liquor, bark) from industrial processes, such as cellulose production.
SIC and SING in Chile
- SIC (Interconnected Central System): Covers the area from Taltal to Chiloé. Current power: 4695-3593 mW.
- SING (Interconnected Northern Grid): Covers the area from Arica to Taltal. Current power: 12.8-3583 mW.
Greenhouse Effect
The greenhouse effect is the warming of the Earth’s crust. The most important greenhouse gases are CO2 and N2.
Cascade Energy Production
Energy production from a cascade is achieved through the action of water on a hydraulic turbine, which in turn imparts rotary motion to an electric generator.
Natural Resources
Air, water, minerals, soil, flora, and fauna.
Abiotic Factors
Abiotic factors determine the physical space inhabited by living organisms. Examples include H2O, temperature, light, and nutrients.
Air Composition
N2 (78.03%), O2 (20.9%), Ar (0.94%), and others.
Earth as a Geosystem
The Earth, or geosystem, is the set of biotic, abiotic, and anthropic (society) units.
Animal Classifications
- Caprine: Genus of mammals including goats.
- Camelids: All camelids of the Andes (llama, guanaco, alpaca).
- Ovine: Ruminant mammals of the cattle family (sheep – female, ram – male).
- Bovine: Pertaining to the ox or cow.
- Porcine: Relative to swine, boar, or pig.
Environmental Changes Affecting Natural Resources
Irrational exploitation of native forests, erosion and soil depletion due to misuse, seafood capturing during closed seasons, wildfires, burning, contamination of seawater with sewage, pollution, and overexploitation of marine resources.