Marx, 19th-Century Transformations, and Intellectual Currents
19th Century: Context, Society, and Culture
Historical Context (HC)
Marx lived in the 19th century, a complex contemporary period. The 19th century saw significant changes and is known as the ‘Century of Revolutions’. The most important event that marked the beginning of this revolutionary era was the French Revolution. One of the causes of this revolution was the intellectual climate, with the influence of Enlightenment philosophers and Encyclopedists. This event unleashed a revolutionary movement that ultimately spread throughout Europe.
This revolution was decisive, from the arrival of Napoleon until his defeat, when some of the demands of the revolution were consolidated: destruction of feudal structures, and the establishment of the bourgeoisie. However, what transpired was that the empire came to control most of Western and part of Central Europe. When this empire ended, some nations united to prevent this from happening again, and the Congress of Vienna took place, giving rise to what is known as the Restoration.
The new organization was based on traditional principles, such as restoring the power of the Church. Although monarchies tried, they could not stifle nationalist ideas that were already widespread in Europe. This led to waves of revolutions across Europe, and there were some conflicts related to territorial and nationalist claims. Subsequently, there were distinct periods of peace, and an era of prosperity transformed countries like the UK, Belgium, and France.
Social Context
In the 19th century, society saw the consolidation of a heterogeneous class. The Industrial Revolution brought about economic and social transformations, leading to a class society. The bourgeoisie (captains of industry) benefited the most and lived in overcrowded conditions, while the proletariat experienced significant exploitation. A middle class also emerged, formed by civil servants, small merchants, doctors, etc.
Philosophical Context (PC)
Modernity included great thinkers. One key figure was Hegel, with his system of absolute idealism, summarized as ‘all reality is rational and all that is rational is real.’ Hegel was a radical absolute idealist. Those who followed him are known as the Right Hegelians. However, this also inspired an opposing tendency. Some authors were part of this movement and received its influence, while others provided a different perspective. The latter are known as the Left Hegelians (notably Feuerbach and Marx).
Feuerbach’s argument can be summarized as changing rational theology for anthropology; the object of study should be man. Feuerbach replaced Hegelian idealism with a materialist approach. Marx accepted dialectical materialism but reversed it, believing that the dialectical movement does not apply to reason but to circumstances. He also shared concerns about the keys to history, although in a very distinctive way. Feuerbach accepted the materialist critique of idealism, but in a different way.
The panorama of this century is complex and vast, with other tendencies:
- Positivism (represented by Comte): A current strongly influenced by industrialization. It postulates that human knowledge passes through three phases: theological, metaphysical, and scientific, with science as the model.
- Existentialism (represented by Kierkegaard): The main point of reference is the unique individual and their distinct actions.
- Vitalism (represented by Nietzsche): Proposes a transvaluation of values, tending to retrieve a character that overcomes the one he desires.
Cultural Context (CC)
One of the considerable factors was the dissemination of ideas through culture, such as periodicals and universities. Two movements stand out:
- Romanticism: It puts irrational values, individualism, subjectivism, and history in the foreground, and is interested in tradition. Notable figures include Leopardi and Espronceda.
- Realism: Considered as a transcript of positivism, it granted value to science. Notable figures include Tolstoy and Balzac.
In the mid-19th century, Paris transformed into the city of art, where the most important artists gathered. There was a difference between the more exploited motif of classical painting (with Ingres or Canovas) and, on the other hand, the great breaks in style with Impressionism (such as Renoir or Monet).