Marx, Weber, Durkheim: Core Sociological Concepts
Marx’s Theory of Class Conflict
Classes according to Marx are defined by their relationship to the means of production (owning or not owning).
- Conflict exists between the proletariat (workers) and the bourgeoisie (owners).
- The bourgeoisie exploits the proletariat.
- The bourgeoisie is united; the proletariat is not and must organize to fight capitalism.
- Crises will continue until the proletariat unites to create communism.
Marx’s Four Types of Alienation
- From the labor process: The worker is under capitalist control, and work is coerced, not voluntary.
- From the product: The worker’s product is taken from them under the system of private property.
- From fellow workers: Capitalism forces competition between workers, hindering solidarity.
- From themselves (species-being): Work under capitalism distorts human nature instead of fulfilling its creative potential.
Weber’s Spirit of Capitalism
The spirit of capitalism, according to Weber, is a way of thinking characterized by:
- Work is considered valuable in itself (an ethical duty).
- Prosperity (making money through legitimate means) is seen as a sign of moral goodness.
- Life is organized methodically around work and economic activity.
- Delayed gratification is practiced (working hard now for future rewards).
Weber contrasts this with traditionalism, which focuses more on immediate needs, customary practices, and simpler living.
Example: If wages increase:
- In modern capitalist societies influenced by this spirit, people tend to work more to maximize earnings.
- In traditional societies, people might work less once their customary needs are met.
The Protestant Ethic: The Calling
Certain Protestant religious ideas, particularly those related to asceticism, helped change economic behavior, fostering the growth of capitalism.
- Luther introduced the concept of a “calling”: the idea that individuals should fulfill their duty to God through dedicated work in a worldly occupation.
- Lutherans maintained a more traditional interpretation, while Calvinists developed a stricter, more action-oriented understanding that significantly influenced economic behavior.
Calvinism and Predestination
A key Calvinist belief influencing the spirit of capitalism was predestination—the doctrine that God has predetermined who will be saved and who will be damned, irrespective of individual actions.
Consequences of predestination:
- It created intense inner loneliness and anxiety, as individuals could not know or change their fate.
- It led to a rejection of sacraments or church rituals as means to salvation.
- It motivated individuals to seek signs of being among the “elect” (chosen for salvation).
Success in one’s worldly calling, achieved through diligent, methodical work and ascetic self-discipline, came to be interpreted as a potential sign of being chosen. This wasn’t about earning salvation but about alleviating anxiety by finding evidence of it. This psychological drive encouraged rational, systematic, and tireless work, reinvestment of profits (rather than luxury spending), and an overall methodical approach to life—key components of the capitalist spirit.
Mills’ Sociological Imagination
In The Sociological Imagination, C. Wright Mills argues that individuals often feel trapped by their personal circumstances (personal troubles) without understanding how these are connected to larger social structures and historical processes (public issues). The sociological imagination is the quality of mind that enables individuals to grasp the interplay between biography and history, self and society. Understanding this connection is crucial for comprehending both personal experiences and the broader social world.
Comparing Durkheim, Marx, and Weber
- Durkheim focused on social order, solidarity, and cohesion. He viewed society as an organism, with institutions functioning to maintain stability. He introduced the concept of anomie (normlessness resulting from rapid social change).
- Marx emphasized economic structures and class conflict. He argued that history is driven by the struggle between the bourgeoisie (owners of capital) and the proletariat (workers), predicting that capitalism’s internal contradictions would lead to revolution.
- Weber focused on the role of culture, ideas, rationality, and authority. He explored how rationalization and bureaucracy shape modern society and linked the rise of capitalism to cultural factors, notably the Protestant ethic.
Alienation, Disenchantment, and Anomie
These three concepts highlight different forms of social and personal disconnection in modern society:
Marx’s Alienation
Focuses on how capitalism estranges workers from their labor process, the products they create, their fellow workers, and their own human potential (species-being), stemming from a lack of control over work and its outcomes.
Weber’s Disenchantment
Refers to the process where rationalization, science, and bureaucracy dominate modern society, leading to a decline in the influence of magic, religion, and traditional values, resulting in a world perceived as predictable and controllable but potentially lacking deeper meaning.
Durkheim’s Anomie
Describes a state of normlessness where social norms are weak, conflicting, or absent, often during periods of rapid social change. This leaves individuals feeling disconnected from society, lacking moral guidance, and potentially experiencing higher rates of deviance or distress.