Marxism, Anarchism, Nationalism, Imperialism & Spanish History

Posted on Dec 15, 2024 in History

Marxism and Anarchism

Marxism: An ideology of the labor movement and one of the most important social theories, named after Karl Marx. This theory posits that industrial societies are characterized by a class struggle between the bourgeoisie and the workers (proletariat). Marx proposed that workers should carry out a revolution to overthrow capitalism and empower the working class. This gave rise to socialist parties starting from 1875.

Anarchism: This ideology opposes the state and advocates for its replacement with voluntary associations among people. Anarchists also reject traditional politics, political parties, and participation in elections.

The Workers’ International

Founded in 1889, this organization, despite its dissolution in 1964, established key symbols of the labor movement, such as the celebration of May Day and the international anthem. Governments began enacting labor laws to address abuses by employers, including child labor, the implementation of an 8-hour workday, and the provision of accident insurance.

The Birth of Nationalism

The concept of a nation refers to a group of people born in the same place and under the rule of a single monarch. A nation unites people of diverse backgrounds and cultures. There are two main conceptions of a nation:

  • German Romantics: Advocated for a cultural conception of the nation.
  • French Theorists: Proposed a political conception of the nation.

These ideologies led to two processes:

A-Nationalization Policy

This involved the use of national language, the development of traditions, flags, anthems, and the formation of national sentiment.

B-Nationalist Movements

These movements can be categorized into:

1 – Disruptive Movements:
  • Belgium seceded from the Netherlands in 1830, becoming an independent state.
  • Greece gained independence from the Turks in 1829.
  • Ireland became independent from Britain in 1922.
2 – Unifying Movements:

Italy, despite being divided into several states, had a common language that fostered a sense of unity. In 1858, an agreement between Napoleon Bonaparte and Cavour was made. In 1859, the French army defeated the Austrians at the battles of Magenta and Solferino, leading to the unification of the duchies with Piedmont. In 1860, Garibaldi led an army to conquer the southern states. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed King of Italy. In 1866, Austria was defeated by Prussia, leading to the incorporation of Venice. In 1870, after France’s defeat by Prussia, the Papal States joined Italy.

The German Congress of Vienna in 1815 comprised the states of the Germanic Confederation, headed by Austria. In 1848, the Frankfurt Parliament offered the crown to the King of Prussia, who refused. In 1866, the war between Austria and Prussia resulted in a Prussian victory at the Battle of Sadowa, leading to the creation of the Confederation of North Germany. In 1870, the Prussian victory over France at the Battle of Sedan allowed for the incorporation of the southern states, and in 1871, the German Empire was established.

Imperialism

Imperialism involves the domination of one country over another, reaching its peak in the 19th century when European powers divided Asia, Africa, and Oceania. New players emerged, including Britain, Germany, Italy, Belgium, the USA, and Japan. In 1800, 35% of the land was under European control, which increased to 84% by 1914.

Economic Factors

  • The search for new markets.
  • Spaces for capital investment.
  • Access to cheap raw materials.

Political Factors

  • Conquest of strategic locations for shipping and land routes.
  • Increased prestige.
  • Strengthening of national pride.

Demographic Factors

Emigration to the colonies reduced pressure on the domestic population.

Ideological Factors

  • Belief in the superiority of the white race, justifying the domination of other peoples.
  • The mission to civilize and convert people to Christianity.
  • Scientific curiosity that drove geographical expeditions.

Colonial Organization

1-Political Organization:

Three ways to handle colonies:

  • Colonies: Administered and governed by the metropolis.
  • Protectorates: The colonial power controlled foreign policy, while local authorities managed internal affairs.
  • Concessional: Independent countries where European countries made agreements.

2-Economic Exploitation:

  • Large plantations grew products that could not be grown in Europe.
  • Exploitation of underground minerals, with profits going to the metropolis.
  • Use of cheap labor.
  • Discouragement of industrialization.

3-Racist Society:

In colonies with similar climates, many Europeans migrated, and the native population became a marginalized minority. Colonizers and settlers occupied the main political and economic positions, living in their own neighborhoods. The colonized lived in poverty and had no rights.

The War of Independence

In 1807, Spain signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau with France, allowing French troops to invade Portugal. However, the French took advantage and occupied some Spanish cities. This caused unrest among the Spanish population. Fernando, taking advantage of the discontent, instigated the Mutiny of Aranjuez (1808), which led to Charles IV abdicating in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII. Napoleon I took advantage of the problems within the royal family and forced them to abdicate in favor of his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, who became King of Spain. Before the kidnapping, a popular uprising occurred in Madrid, marking the beginning of the war of independence. The war was a time of liberation against the French and civil strife, as the population was divided between pro-French and pro-Ferdinand factions. When Napoleon needed troops for the Russian campaign, the Spanish, allied with the English, launched a counteroffensive. In 1913, the Treaty of Valençay ended the war and restored the crown to Ferdinand VII.

Courts of Cadiz and the Constitution

The Constitution of 1812 reflected the principles of political liberalism, recognizing national sovereignty, the division of powers, and establishing a comprehensive bill of rights. The Cádiz court adopted many reforms that ended the old regime, including the removal of lordships, the abolition of the Inquisition, the banning of unions, and the declaration of equality before the law for all Spaniards.

The Restoration of Absolutism (1814-1820)

In 1814, Ferdinand VII returned to Spain. Despite expectations that he would swear to the constitution, the King, supported by the subservient, abrogated the Constitution and the reforms adopted during the war. Ferdinand ruled absolutely for six years. The liberal faction of the army attempted to restore liberalism through uprisings and reinstate the principles of the nobility and clergy.

The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)

Following a military uprising, the king swore to the constitution, freed political prisoners, and called for elections for a liberal court. The reforms of the Court of Cadiz were restored, and a militia was created. In 1823, the intervention of the Holy Alliance led to the restoration of absolutism.

End of Absolutism and the Carlist War (1823-1840)

The signing of the Pragmatic Sanction named Elizabeth II as heir to the throne. After the death of Ferdinand VII in 1833, the Carlist War began. This dynastic and ideological conflict pitted liberals, who supported Elizabeth II, against the Carlists, who advocated for absolutism and the privileges of the old regime. The war ended in 1840 with the agreement or embrace of Vergara.

Regency Period (1833-1844)

A military uprising led to the seizure of land by Mendizábal, the creation of a constitution, the regency of Espartero, and the resignation of Espartero. Elizabeth II was proclaimed of age.

Moderate Decade (1844-1854)

The moderates were in power, suspending the confiscation of land and creating another constitution.

Progressive Biennium (1854-1856)

The progressives were in power, building a liberal union, and confiscating land under the Madoz law.

The Final Crisis of the Reign of Elizabeth II

Revolts occurred in the countryside and cities due to economic problems and hunger. Progressives, Republicans, and Democrats were excluded from power and were unhappy with the conservative government. The Queen became increasingly unpopular, and in 1866, the Pact of Ostend was signed, agreeing to the expulsion of the Bourbons.

Provisional Government (1868-1870)

Serrano headed the government, adopting a new constitution. In 1869, Serrano was appointed regent.

Reign of Amadeo I (1870-1873)

In 1870, Elizabeth II abdicated in favor of her son Alfonso. Amadeo became King of Spain, but abdicated, leading to the proclamation of the republic.

First Republic (1873-1874)

In 1873, Figueras presided over the first republic, proclaiming a federal republic. The Cantonalist movement and the delivery of Martínez Campos occurred.

Restoration

In December 1824, a coup by General Martinez Campos proclaimed Alfonso XII, son of Elizabeth II, as king, marking the beginning of the restoration. Cánovas was appointed prime minister, ending the Carlist War and the war in Cuba, and creating a political system.

Constitution of 1876

Features:

  1. A conciliatory constitution incorporating the shared decisions of liberals and conservatives.
  2. A two-party system was established, with the Conservatives led by Cánovas and the Liberal party led by Sagasta. These parties were sustained by corruption, patronage, and rigging.
  3. The rise of anarchists in 1868, socialists in 1879, and nationalists.