Marxism: Influences, Surplus Value, and Social Movements
Marxism: Main Influences and Core Concepts
Marxism, an ideology developed in the 19th century by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, drew upon several key intellectual influences.
Key Influences on Marxist Thought
G.W.F. Hegel: Dialectics
Marx adopted the concept of dialectics from G.W.F. Hegel, a prominent figure in German Idealism. Dialectics is a method of understanding history as a series of conflicts between opposing ideas (antagonisms). Each conflict leads to the emergence of a new societal structure.
Example of the Dialectical Method: Feudalism, characterized by nobles and priests, clashed with the rising bourgeoisie in cities. This conflict resulted in capitalism and the industrial society of the 19th century. Marx argued that capitalism would, in turn, lead to the rise of the proletariat and ultimately to communism.
British Political Economy (Liberalism)
Marx studied the works of liberal economists like David Ricardo to understand economics and its impact on society. He believed that history and society should be analyzed through an economic lens.
Feuerbach: Materialism
From Feuerbach, Marx learned about materialism. In contrast to the idealism prevalent in Germany, which focused on consciousness and the spiritual, materialism emphasizes the importance of the real, observable world. Marx applied this by focusing on material conditions in his analysis of society.
Marx combined Hegel’s dialectics with Feuerbach’s materialism, applying the dialectical method in a materialist way.
Utopian Socialism
Friedrich Engels appreciated the revolutionary critique of thinkers like Owen, Saint-Simon, and Fourier, but criticized their proposals for being unrealistic.
The Core of Marxist Thought: Surplus Value
The concept of surplus value is central to Marx’s critique of capitalism. Surplus value is the new value created by workers that exceeds their labor costs. This surplus is appropriated by the capitalist as profit.
Example of Surplus Value: Imagine an employer hires five workers who produce 50 t-shirts daily. The cost of cotton is $100, and the t-shirts are sold for $1000. Each worker receives a salary of $100 per day.
The workers create $900 of wealth ($1000 – $100). However, their total salaries are only $500. The remaining $400, obtained by the employer, is the surplus value.
Marx argued that throughout history, there has been a consistent pattern of surplus value extraction:
- Pre-history: Production is too low to allow for surplus value extraction.
- Slave-owner society: Slaves produce wealth, and citizens or patricians extract the surplus value.
- Feudalism: Peasants produce wealth, and noble landlords extract the surplus value.
- Capitalism: Factory workers produce wealth, and the industrial bourgeoisie extract the surplus value.
Marx aimed to eliminate this exploitation. His ideas, outlined in works like The Communist Manifesto, advocate for the common ownership of the means of production. Since the proletariat produces the wealth in factories, they should own the factories and their output.
New Social Movements and Labor Organization
Difficult working conditions and worker poverty under the industrial system led to social unrest.
Workers’ Associations
The Luddites were among the first to protest industrialization, violently destroying machinery they believed caused low wages and unemployment. Later, workers began forming associations to defend their interests. These early organizations, such as relief societies, acted as resistance groups, providing assistance during illness or unemployment. They organized strikes and created contingency funds. The repeal of laws prohibiting worker associations in England in 1824 led to the creation of official trade unions, uniting workers in the same field. The Grand National Consolidated Trades Union, founded in 1834, aimed to defend the right of association, reduce working hours, improve wages, and regulate child labor.
New Social Solutions
Thinkers proposed new models of social organization to address the injustices of capitalism.
- Utopian Socialists: (Saint-Simon, Proudhon, and Fourier) argued that private property was the root cause of inequality and proposed collective ownership.
- Revolutionary Movements: In the mid-19th century, some thinkers advocated for revolution to overthrow capitalism and establish an egalitarian society, leading to Marxism and anarchism.
- The Catholic Church: Concerned about the working class’s conditions, Pope Leo XIII issued the encyclical Rerum Novarum in 1890, advocating for improved living conditions and social laws for workers.
James Watt and the New Steam Engine
James Watt (1736-1819), born in Scotland, studied mathematics and assisted in his father’s workshop. In 1764, he was tasked with repairing a Newcomen steam engine. Recognizing its inefficiency, he developed a much more efficient machine that became a driving force behind industry and transport. His partnership with Matthew Boulton facilitated the successful marketing of his invention.