Mastering English Grammar: Purpose, Time, Result, and Reported Speech

Posted on Mar 9, 2025 in English

Purpose Clauses

Purpose clauses are used to express the purpose of an action. They explain the motivation why someone does something. We use to-infinitive. We cannot use not to on its own. In order to and so as to are more formal. The staff are working today so as to complete the project.

Negative Forms

  • In order not to
  • So as not to

So that: after so that we use a subject and verb: so that it gets. We often use will or can for present purpose and would or could for a past purpose.

To or For?

  • We can use for with a noun to say why we do something: Come over for coffee.
  • To talk about the purpose of a thing, we use either a to-infinitive or for + -ing: This machine is used to cut/for cutting.
  • But we don’t use for + ing to talk about a specific action: I put the heater on TO keep the plants warm NOT for keeping
Negative Purpose
  1. Prevent + noun/pronoun + (from) + -ing: He covered the sofa to prevent it (from) getting dirty.
  2. Avoid + -ing: They set off early to avoid getting stuck.

Result (Cause & Effect)

These phrases function as linking words between sentences, and they come after a full stop or a semicolon. It’s possible to place these within the “effect” sentence, but between commas.

These are used in formal & written English: as a result (not the same as ‘as a result of’ – clauses of reason), therefore, consequently.

Adverbial Clauses of Result

Adverbial clauses of result are also introduced by subordinating conjunctions. These are common in spoken English:

  • So… that…
  • So + adjective/adverb + that: The coffee is so hot that I can’t drink it.
  • So + many/few/much/little + noun + that: He has so much money that he collects cars.
  • Such + (a) + (adjective) + noun + that: The film was such a success that it won many awards.

SO can also be a coordinating conjunction when used on its own. A comma usually precedes it: I overslept, so I was late for school.

We use intensifiers too and enough + infinitive to say why a result is or isn’t possible.

  • Too + adverb/adjective + infinitive: The thief ran too fast to catch. If we want to introduce a new subject we need for + subject: Too fast for you to catch.
  • Adverb/adjective + enough + infinitive or …enough + noun + infinitive

Time Clauses

They are subordinate adverb clauses introduced by conjunctions of time.

  • We use after in the adverbial clause when the main clause describes something that happens later: After she graduates, she’ll get a job.
  • We use before in the adverbial clause when the main clause describes something that happens earlier: I’ll leave before he comes.
  • It’s possible to use after or before + -ing (the subject is the same).
  • When can introduce an adverb clause describing a period of time or a point in time.
  • We can use as, while or when for a period of time during which something happens: As/While/When I was eating, he called me. We prefer while or as to talk about longer actions. As is preferred when one thing changes and another thing changes at the same time: As it grew darker, it became colder.
  • By the time: one event is completed before another event.
  • We use since (from the time that) to talk about a starting point for something in the main clause that happens later or that is still true.
  • We use until to talk about an action that continues to a particular time and then stops: We stayed until we finished. It can also be used when a situation continues to happen up to a time indicated in the adverb clause: I had to wait until he arrived.
  • As soon as and once mean the same as after: After it stops raining, we’ll leave (= the minute that)
  • We use as long as to refer to the intended duration of a plan, most commonly referring to the future.
  • Whenever = every time.
  • The first, last, next time…
  • No sooner… than = hardly… when: She had no sooner finished reading the letter than she burst into tears. & I had hardly opened the door when the cat got out.

Comparison

The 2nd term in the comparison can be a noun phrase or a subordinate clause forming comparative.

One-Syllable Adjectives

Most add the suffix -er, but we use more + adjective:

  1. With one-syllable adjectives ending in -ed: bored
  2. Something fun, real, right, wrong
  3. When comparing 2 qualities that a person or thing has: He’s more mad than brave.
  4. With some other adjectives after the verb: His version is more true than her’s.

Two-Syllable Adjectives

  1. Adjectives ending in -y (+ er)
  2. Adjectives ending in -ed, -ful and -less (more)

Adverbs

  1. Usually form the comparative with -er
  2. If they have the suffix -ly, form the comparative with more
  • We can use adverbs of degree before comparative forms: much, a lot..
  • We can use no or any before a comparative.
  • When than is followed by a pronoun, it can be a subject pronoun + auxiliary OR a subject pronoun + whole clause (than I do, than me, than I used to..)

Comparisons of Equality

  • As… as
  • The same + noun + as
  • Multiplier + as + much/many + noun + as: He earns 3 times as much money as me.

Reported Speech

We give the meaning of what was said rather than the exact words. When we use Reported Speech, the main verb is usually past. The verb tense is moved one tense back = backshift.

Reported Questions

We don’t invert the word order because the question has become an indirect question: What time is it? – He asked what time it was. We don’t use the auxiliary do, does or did: He asked what time the flight left Paris.

Yes/No Questions

We need if/whether before the indirect question: He asked me whether dinner was ready (or not).

Wh- Questions

How long have you been working? – He asked me how long I had been working there. / Why did she leave? – He asked me why she had left.

Polite Indirect Questions

Could you tell me where the station is? – I’d like to know where the station is.

Reported Orders

Order / tell + someone + (not) to + verb

Reported Suggestions

Suggest/recommend + -ing OR suggest/recommend + that + subject + (should) + base form of verb (no 3rd person – subjunctive!!!) He suggested that she (should) try Japanese food.

DON’T USE SUGGESTED + (indirect object) + INFINITIVE

  • Say + to + verb: She said to do the dishes.
  • Advise + someone + to + verb: He advised me to buy a new car.
  • Propose + -ing OR propose + that + (should) + verb: He proposed that we (should) hold another meeting.