Materials Science: Properties, Testing, and Sustainability
Primary Networks and Subnetworks
Primary networks: Sets of wires connecting the substations with transformation substations.
Subnetworks: A set of cables connecting the substations of transformation with the rush of buildings.
Cogeneration
Cogeneration: Process of using the residual energy when producing electric or mechanical energy.
Cogeneration systems:
- Cogeneration using diesel cycle engine: Works like a standard diesel engine which has been coupled to an alternator to generate electricity.
- Through gas turbine cogeneration: Works like an airplane’s reactors, used where megawatt power is needed.
Energy Saving Options
Heating:
- Thermally insulate the walls.
- Install double glazing.
- Have a key to each radiator to open or close off the water when you are interested in.
- Close the doors to the street.
- Open a few windows for 10 minutes when not heating.
Lighting:
- Turn off lights.
- Open blinds.
- Do not leave lights on.
- Stop machines running if not being used.
Necessity of Making Material Objects
There is no such relationship between the materials used and the time when it was used. To describe the prehistoric ages, they were named after the materials used predominantly:
- Stone Age: Stone and bone tools have been found.
- Copper Age
- Bronze Age: Bronze was produced through the combination of copper and tin. Bronze tools were harder and simpler to make than copper tools.
- Iron Age: Iron was more complicated to work with than copper and tin, as to remove impurities and make tools, the ore had to be heated at very high temperatures to melt. However, the advantages are that the tools are harder.
- Current Epoch: The age of silicon could be named for its great use in electronic components.
Classification of Materials
- Natural materials: Found in nature, they are basic materials from which products are manufactured. Examples are natural wood, wool, esparto grass, clay, and gold.
- Artificial materials: Derived from natural materials. They are also materials manufactured with various materials.
- Synthetic materials: Man-made from artificial materials.
Properties of Materials
Sensory Properties
The factors are touch, smell, shape, brightness, and texture.
Optical Properties
Concern the reaction of the material when light falls on it. We have:
- Opaque materials: No light passes through.
- Transparent materials: Light passes through.
- Translucent materials: Light passes through, but it is not possible to see clearly through it.
Thermal Properties
Describe the behavior of a material to heat capacity.
Magnetic Properties
A ferrous metal is attracted by a magnet, as well as the magnetic properties of a metal magnet to pass. The most important are:
Chemical Properties
Oxidation and corrosion.
Mechanical Properties
- Elasticity: Capacity of the materials to recover their shape after a force is applied.
- Plasticity: Material capacity to retain its new shape once deformed.
- Ductility: Capacity of a material to stretch into threads.
- Malleability: Capacity of a material to spread in sheets without breaking.
- Hardness: Opposition of a body to be scratched or penetrated.
- Fragility: A material shatters when a force strikes against it.
- Tenacity: Resistance of a body to breakage when subjected to slow deformation efforts.
- Fatigue: Deformation of a material subjected to varying loads when they are performing a time.
- Machinability: Easy to let a body be cut by chip removal.
- Temperability: Increased hardness, brittleness, and thus resistance of metals.
- Castability: Cold forming ability of a molten material to fill a mold.
- Resilience: Resistance of a body to shocks or sudden effort.
Physical Efforts that May Undergo Material
- Traction: Force tends to lengthen the object and acts where it is held perpendicular.
- Compression: Force tends to shorten the object.
- Flexion: Force is parallel to the surface of fixing.
- Torsion: Force tends to twist the object.
- Shear: Force is parallel to the surface and breaks through it.
- Buckling: Occurs in subjects in low section and part elongated buckles.
Material Testing
Tensile Test
Slowly stretch a specimen of standard length and section to analyze the material until it breaks. Then, analyze the elongation with increasing force.
Fatigue Test
Consists of a cylinder spinning rapidly made of a standard material. Analyze at the same time it distorts the number of revolutions that has turned. The endurance limit is called.
Hardness Test
Exercise a particular strength with a diamond or a steel ball on the piece to see and measure the scars left behind. After applying a formula, calculate the hardness.
Resilience Test
Determine the energy needed to break a standard specimen of the material to be analyzed by using a pendulum. The impact speed is between 5 and 7 m/s. After breaking the specimen, surplus energy makes up the pendulum.
Depletion of Materials
Materials used to construct products can be:
- Renewable: Materials that are not exhausted with reasonable use because after a while, more will be obtained.
- Non-renewable: Materials from the interior of the Earth that, once used, can end up exhausted if not recycled.
Solutions Adopted
New Designs
Appropriate design can reduce the volume of raw materials used.
Recycling
Achieve the same results when designing and manufacturing products. Separation and identification methods shall be adopted so that when the product is no longer useful, it can be recycled more easily.
Reuse
Within security conditions, products can be reused.
Waste Types
- Inert waste: No risk to the environment or people.
- Toxic and hazardous waste: Flammable, corrosive, toxic, or can cause toxic reactions, causing health hazards or environmental damage.
Operations to Perform with Waste
Reduction at Source
New technologies allow for the generation of less waste, or part of it can be used in other processes.
Treatment
Will depend on the state of waste. The most important treatments are:
- Physical treatments: Separate the remaining residue.
- Chemical treatment: Neutralize the toxic residue by reaction with a reactive.
- Biological treatments: Fermented or fed into digester tanks where the waste is left to decompose into simpler biochemical substances and stable waste.
- Incineration: Introduced in special furnaces which control the temperature, amount of oxygen, and time spent. With them, thermal energy is obtained.
- Controlled release: The landfill site has to be studied in advance to avoid contaminating water or surrounding land through leaks.