Measurement and Evaluation in Education
INTRODUCTION MEASUREME AND EVALUATION :
The process of measurement is an essential component of the learning system.
Measurement has more administrative utility in education than evaluation. An evaluation process is useful in modifying and improving learning system and instructional procedure. The process of measurement is more precise and objective in approach, when compared to evaluation.
Measurement: INTRODUCTION
• Assignment of numbers (quality test, rating scale)
• It is the process of obtaining numerical description of the degree of individual possesses.
• Quantifying of how much does learner learned.
It is an act or process that involves the assignment of numerical values to whatever is being tested. So it involves the quality of something.
E.G.
student‘s score in an examination.
MEANING OF MEASUREMENT:
•The English word measurement originate from the Latin mensura and the “the action of measuring something,. “accurate measurement is essential”.
•In education, the numerical value of scholastics ability, aptitude, achievement etc can be measured and obtained using instruments such as paper and pencil test. It means that the value of the attribute are translated into numbers by measurement.
CONCEPT OF MEASUREMENT :
• Measurement is the assignment of a numerical value to an attribute of an object.
• The units that we use to measure are most often standard units
NATURE OF MEASUREMENT:
• It should be quantitative in nature.
• It must be precise and accurate.
• It must be reliable.
• It must be valid.
•It must be objective in nature.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASUREMENT:
1. Valid
2. Reliable
3. Objective
4. Usable and practicable
5. Comprehensive and precise
6. Easy in administrating
7. Economical
8. Easy in scoring
9. Easily available
10. Good and attractive getup
SCOPE OF MEASUREMENT :
1. PROGNOSIS :
• Tells differences among people’s performance.
• Has the administrative function such as classification, selection, promotion and gradation of students.
• Guidance and counseling service based on prognosis function of measurement.
•Effectiveness of method, instruction and treatment are evaluated on the basis of student achievement.
2. DIAGNOSIS:
• Identifies the weakness of he student – learning.
• Remedial instruction prepared on the basis of diagnosis.
•Establishment the cause effect relationship but prediction implies the simple relationship.
3. RESEARCH :
• Measurement provides more objective and dependable basis for research purposes. Valid generalization can be made on the basis of accurate measurement.
FUNCTION OF MEASUREMENT:
Function of measurement are classified into two major aspects:
1. INSTRUCTIONAL FUNCTION
•When it is used to determine the outcomes of teaching and learning processes and when it is used to make learning more effective.
•Its two type:
A). Principal instructional function :
Basic purpose of measurement:
• To determine what knowledge, skill, abilities, habits, and attitudes have been acquired.
B). SECONDARY INSTRUCTION FUNCTION –
•(Auxillary function) it help make teaching and learning more effective.
• To helped in the formation of study habits.
• To developed the effort-making capacity of the students.
•To serve as aid for guidance, counseling, and prognosis.
• To determine what progress has been made in the acquisition of the learning outcomes.
• To determine the strength, difficulties and needs of the students.
2. ADMINISTRATIVE AND SUPERVISORY FUNCTION OF MEASUREMENT :
These are those that help making the instructional functions more effective –
• To maintain standard
• To classify or select student for special purposes
• To determine the efficacy of teachers, the effectiveness veness of their methods, techniques and strategies, their strength, weakness, and needs.
• To serve as basis or guide for curriculum making and development
TYPE OF MEASUREMENT
1.Direct measurement :
• Physiological measure:
➤heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, Galvanic skin response, eye response, eye movement, magnetic resonance imaging, etc.
• Behavioral measure:
➤ In a naturalistic setting: videotaping leave-taking behavior (how people say goodbye) at an airport.
➤ In a laboratory setting: videotaping superior- subordinate interactions in a simulated environment.
2.Indirect measurement:
• Relying on observers’ estimates or perceptions with indirect questions:
➤Asking subordinates, rather than managers, what managerial style they perceive their supervisors employ.
• Unconstructive measurements: measures of accretion, erosion, etc.
“garbology” research -studying discarded trash for clues about lifestyle, eating habits, consumer purchases, etc.
3. Miscellaneous :
• Archived data:
✓ Example: number of emails send from students to instructors for research purpose.
• Retrospective data:
Example: employee absenteeism or turn-over rates in an organization.
MEASUREMENT SCALE :
1.NOMINAL SCALE
• Used for labeling variables, without any quantitative value.
• Simply be called “Labels”.
• Mutually excusive and none of them have any numerical significance.
• “Nominal” sounds a lot like “Name”.
2.ORDINAL SCALE
• Order of the values is what’s important and signumwant but the differences each one is not really know.
• Measure of non-numeric concepts like satisfaction, happiness, discomfort etc.
• “ordinal” is sounds like “order”.
3.INTERVAL SCALE
• Numeric scales.
• Difference between the values is the same.
•”interval scale” means interval itself means “Space in between”
•Not clear idea about zero.
4.RATIO SCALE
• Allows for a wide range of both descriptive and inferential statistics to be applied.
• Have absolute zero.
•Variables can be meaningfully added, subtracted, multiplied, divided.
• Central tendency can be measured by mode, median or mean, measures of dispersion such as standard deviation and coefficient of variation can be calculated from ratio scales.
Role of measurement in education :
1. Determining the Goals that Have Been Set –
One of the most important and first steps in education is to set goals and define them clearly, and in order for the teacher to measure what has been achieved, appropriate evaluation and measurement methods must be used.
2. Development and Improvement of Education-
Measurement and evaluation contribute to improving student learning from various aspects. It helps the student, the teacher, and those involved in the educational process in identifying problems and working to solve them, clarifying what the student and teacher need of information and skills, and determining the extent of progress in what has been taught and learned.
3.Diagnose the Problem and Find the Solution –
The measurement process identifies the student’s strengths and weaknesses and his willingness to learn new things and receive multiple experiences and skills, thus strengthening the strengths and addressing the weaknesses.
4. Categorizing Students Based on Measuring Their Skills-
Where measurement and evaluation can clarify the appropriate disciplines for each student, scientific, literary, commercial, industrial, and so on.
5.Providing Guidance and Instructions to Students-
The educational counselor uses the results of measurement and evaluation to reach educational, guiding, and professional decisions for the student, as they provide him\her with a clear picture of the strengths and weaknesses. Thus the counseling process is better and more successful.
6. Providing the Teacher, the Student, and the Whole System with Feedback –
The measurement process gives clear reports and questionnaires on all aspects of learning, including academic content, teaching methods used by the teacher, and activities that take place, all of which is related to the educational process.
Evaluation
Introduction
• Process of making value judgments over a level of performance or achievement.
• Based on qualitative data.
MEANING OF EVALUATION
• Evaluation has its origin from the Latin word “Valupure” which means the value of a particular thing, idea or action.
• Evaluation means finding out the value of something.
DEFINITION:
According to James M. Lee “Evaluation is the appraisal of pupil’s progress in attaining the educational goals set by the school, the class and himself. The chief purpose of evaluation is to guide the students for further learning. Evaluation is a positive rather than a negative process”.
CONCEPT OF EVALUATION:
“Evaluation is the collection, analysis and interpretation of information about any aspect of a programme of education, as part of a recognized process of judging its effectiveness, its efficiency and any other outcomes it may have”
NATURE OF EVALUATION:
• Evaluation is a science of providing information for decision making.
• It includes measurement, assessment and testing.
• It is a process that involves: a.Information gathering.
b.Information processing.
c.Judgment forming.
d.Decision making
OBJECTIVES OF EVALUATION :
There are two objective of evaluation in social studies.
A). General objective of evaluation :
1. To appraise the status of a changes in pupil behavior
2. To disclose pupil’s needs and possibilities
3. To aid pupil’s-teacher planning
4. To expand the concept of worthwhile goals beyond pure achievement
5. To facilitate the selection and improvement of measuring instrument
6. To familiarize the teacher with the nature of pupil learning, development and progress. To relate measurement to the goals of the instructional programme.
7. To appraise the teacher’s competence
8. To appraise the supervisor’s competence
9. To serve as a method of improvement
10. To serve a guiding principle for the selection of supervisory techniques
B) SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE OF EVALUATION
•To help in diagnosis of weakness of student
•To help in measuring factual knowledge
•To help in predicting future achievement
•To stimulate instruction
•To meet criticism
•To test the development of skills and attitudes of students
PURPOSE OF EVALUATION
• Check effectiveness
• Track improvement
•Appraises the status and changes in pupil behavior.
•Continuous improvement of plan
•Improve decision making
•To progress towards objectives
NEED OF EVALUATION
1.Improvement of instruction
2.Clarification of objective
3.Promotion of better learning
4.Provision of the basis of guidance
5. Curriculum changes
6. To test achievement of pupils
7. To improve student personality
8. To attain success in teaching
9.Act as incentive
PRINCIPLE OF EVALUATION
• Determining and clarifying what is to be evaluated always has priority in the evaluation process.
• Evaluation techniques should be selected according to the purposes to be served.
• Comprehensive evaluation requires a variety of evaluation techniques.
• Proper use of evaluation techniques requires an awareness of both their limitations and strengths.
•Evaluation is a means to an end, not an end itself.
TYPE OF EVALUATION
1.FORMATIVE EVALUATION/CONTINUOUS EVALUATION:
• Monitor student learning to provide on going feedback that can be used by instructors to improve their teaching and by students to improve their learning.
• Help student identify their strength and weaknesses and target areas that need work.
•Help faculty recognize where students are struggling and address problems immediately.
2.SUMMATIVE EVALUATION/ COMPREHENSIVE EVALUATION :
• Evaluate student learning at the end of an instructional unit by comparing it against some standard or benchmark.
• High stakes means that they have a high point value.
Example:
Mid term exam
Final project
Paper/exam
3. DIAGNOSTIC EVALUATION:
• In this type of evaluation detect pupil’s learning difficulties which somehow are not revealed by formative test. It is more comprehensive and specific.
Instructional objectives: Meaning and need, mastery and developmental objectives, Sources of objectives for selection of objectives, taxonomy of Bloom.
Instructional objectives : Meaning and need
Instructional objectives, also known as learning objectives or educational objectives, are specific statements that describe what learners should be able to accomplish after completing a learning activity, lesson, or course. These objectives articulate the intended outcomes of instruction and provide a clear focus for teaching, and assessment.
Meaning:
1. Specific Statements: Instructional objectives are clear and specific statements that describe the desired learning outcomes in measurable terms.
2. Observable and Measurable Behaviors: They focus on observable and measurable behaviors that learners should demonstrate after instruction.
3. Learning Goals :
Instructional objectives outline the knowledge, skills, attitudes, or abilities that learners are expected in acquire or develop.
Need:
1. Clarity and Focus :
Instructional objectives provide clarity and focus for instructional design, gilding educators in selecting appropriate content, activities, and assessments.
2. Alignment with Goals: They ensure alignment between instructional goals, content, and assessment. Promoting coherence and effectiveness in teaching and learning
3. Communication with Learners: Clear objectives communicate expectations to learners, helping them understand what is expected of them and why they are learning specific content or skills.
4.
Assessment and Evaluation: instructional objectives serve as criteria for assessing learners performance and evaluating the effectiveness of instruction.
5. Differentiation and Personalization: By clearly articulating learning objectives, educators can differentiate instruction and personalize learning experiences to meet the diverse needs of learners.
6. Motivation and Engagement: Well-defined objectives provide learners with clear goals to strive for, enhancing motivation and engagement in the learning process.
7. Feedback and Reflection: Instructional objectives facilitate feedback and reflection by enabling learners to assess their progress and identify areas for improvement.
Components of Instructional Objectives:
1. Audience: Identifies the learners or target audience for whom the objectives are intended
2. Behavior: Describes the observable and measurable behaviors that learners should demonstrate
3. Condition: Specifies the circumstances conditions under which the behavior is expected to occur
4. Degree/Criteria: States the criteria or standards for acceptable performance, indicating the level of proficiency or achievement expected.
Example:
Objective: By the end of the lesson, students will be able to solve addition problems with two-digit numbers without regrouping.
• Audience : students
• Behavior : solve addition problems with two-digit numbers
• Condition : without regrouping
• Degree/ criteria:
Successfully solve at least 8 out of 10 addition problems accurately.
Mastery and developmental objectives:
Mastery objectives and developmental objectives are two types of instructional objectives that serve different purposes in education.
1. Mastery Objectives:
Mastery objectives focus on achieving a specific level of proficiency or mastery in a particular skill or content area.
These objectives emphasize achieving a high level of competence or mastery in a defined domain. Key characteristics of mastery objectives include:
• Specificity: Mastery objectives are clear and specific, outlining the precise skills or knowledge that learners are expected to master.
• Measurability: They are measurable, allowing for the assessment of whether learners have achieved the desired level of mastery.
• High Standards: Mastery objectives typically set high standards for performance aiming for proficiency or mastery rather than basic competency.
• Criteria-Based: Mastery objectives often include specific criteria or standards that define what constitutes mastery or proficiency.
Example of Mastery Objective: By the end of the unit, students will be able tri accurately identify and analyze five different literary devices in a given passage of text.
2. Developmental Objectives:
Developmental objectives focus on facilitating growth, progress, or development over time. These objectives emphasize the sequential acquisition of skills or knowledge and recognize that stages of development at their own pace. Key characteristics of developmental objectives include:
• Progression: Developmental objectives emphasize progression over time, acknowledging that learners may start at different levels and progress at different rates.
• Incremental Goals: They often include incremental goals or milestones that learners can achieve as they progress through the learning process.
• Differentiation: Developmental objectives support differentiation, allowing for instruction that meets the diverse needs and readiness levels of learners.
• Continuous Improvement: Developmental objectives promote continuous improvement and growth,
encouraging learners to build on their existing knowledge and skills.
Example of Developmental Objective:
By the end of the semester, students will demonstrate improved fluency in reading by accurately reading and comprehending grade levels texts at an increased rate of 120 words per minute.
Comparison:
• Focus : Mastery objectives emphasize achieving a high level of proficiency or mastery in a specific skill or content area while developmental objective focus on facilitating growth and progression over time.
• Standards : Mastery objectives set high standards for performance and emphasize achieving mastery, whereas developmental objectives recognise individual differences in learners readiness and pace of development.
• Assessment : Mastery objectives are typically assessed based on whether learners have achieved a specific level of proficiency while developmental objectives may involve ongoing assessment of progress and growth over time.
Sources of objectives :
In education, instructional objectives serve as guiding statements that specify what learners are expected to achieve as a result of instruction. These objectives provide direction for curriculum development, instructional design, assessment, and evaluation. There are various sources from which instructional objectives can be derived.
Here are some common sources:
1. Curriculum Standards and Frameworks:
• National Standards: Educational authorities at the national level often establish standards that outline the
knowledge, skills, and competencies students should attain at different grade levels or subject areas.
• State of Provincial Standards: State or provincial education departments develop standards that align with national standards but may also include specific regional or state-level priorities.
• Subject-specific Frameworks : Subject-specific organizations or associations may develop frameworks that outline learning objectives and content standards for particular subjects or disciplines.
2. Learning Goals and Outcomes :
• Educational Goals: Educational institutions and organizations may establish overarching goals or objectives that guide their educational programs and initiatives.
• Program Learning Outcomes: Individual academic programs or courses often define specific learning outcomes that students are expected to achieve upon completion.
3. Needs Assessment :
• Student Needs: Conducting needs assessments involves analyzing the knowledge skills and abilities that learners currently possess and identifying areas where they need improvement or further development.
• Stakeholder Input: Input from various stakeholders, including students, parents, educators, employers and community members, can inform the identification of
learning objectives that meet the needs and priorities of the intended audience.
4. Educational Research and Best Practices:
• Pedagogical Research: Research studies in education provide insights into effective instructional strategies methods, and approaches for achieving desired learning outcomes.
• Best Practices: Drawing from evidence-based practice and research findings, educators can identify instructional objectives that align with proven methods for promoting student learning and achievement.
5. Professional Expertise:
• Educator Expertise: Experienced educators, instructional designers and subject matter experts play a
crucial role in developing instructional objectives based on their knowledge of curriculum, pedagogy and learner needs.
• Collaborative Efforts:
Collaborative teams of educators, curriculum specialist, administrators and other stakeholders can work together to develop comprehensive sets of instructional objectives that reflect diverse perspectives and expertise.
6. Industry and workplace standards :
• Industry requirements: In vocational and technical education, instructional objectives may be derived from standards, certifications, and workplace requirements.
• Employer Expectations: Understanding the skills and competencies valued by employers can inform the development of instructional objectives that prepare students for success in the workforce.
Criteria for selection of objectives :
Selecting appropriate instructional objectives is a critical step in the instructional design process, as it sets the foundation for curriculum development, teaching strategies, assessment methods, and overall learning outcomes.
Several criteria can guide the selection of objectives to ensure they are relevant, achievable, and aligned with the goals of instruction.
1. Relevance to Learning Goals:
• Alignment: Objectives should align closely with the overall learning goals or intended outcomes of the instructional program or course.
• Clarity: Objectives should clearly articulate what learners are expected to achieve, ensuring that they are specific, measurable, and understandable.
2. Learner-Centered:
• Appropriateness: Objectives should be appropriate for the age, grade level, developmental stage, and prior knowledge of the learners.
• Engagement: Objectives should be relevant and meaningful to learners, fostering their interest, motivation, and engagement in the learning process.
3. Feasibility:
• Attainability: Objectives should be realistically achievable within the time frame, resources and constraints of the instructional setting.
•Scope : Objectives should be manageable in terms of complexity and breadth, and limitations of learners and educators.
4. Measurability:
• Observable Behaviors: Objectives should describe observable and can be assessed or evaluated.
• Assessment Alignment: Objectives should be compatible with used to measure student achievement.
5. Curriculum Alignment:
• Subject Integration: Objectives should align with the content, themes ans concepts of the curriculum,ensuring coherence and continuity in learning.
• Interdisciplinary connection : Objectives should support interdisciplinary connections and promote the integration of knowledge across different subject areas.
6. Relevance to Real-World Contexts :
• Authenticity: Objectives should should reflect Real world applications, context and problems, preparing learners for success in there personal, academic and professional lives.
•Problem-solving skills : objectives should promote the development of critical thinking, problem solving and decision making skills that are transferable to divers situations.
7. Differentiation and Inclusion :
• Diversity : objectives should address the diverse needs interests and learning style of learners allowing for differentiation and personalization of instruction.
• Inclusion : objectives should promote inclusivity and equity ensuring that all-liners have opportunities to succeed and thrive.
8. Continuous Improvement:
• Feedback Mechanisms: Objectives should support ongoing feedback, reflection, and revision to facilitate continuous improvement in teaching and learning.
• Data-Informed Decision Making: Objectives should be informed by data and evidence of student learning, allowing educators to make data-driven decisions to enhance instructional effectiveness.
TAXABOMY OF BLOOM :
1. Cognitive domain :
• It is related to the development of intellectual capability (i.E., thinking, or knowledge)and it is the core learning domain. The other domains (i.E., affective and psychomotor domain) require at least some cognitive components. It functions at six levels, which are follows.
1. Knowledge
2. Comprehension
3. Application
4. Analysis
5. Synthesis
6. Evaluating
Six levels under cognitive domain:
1: knowledge (recalling information)
2: comprehension (it has ability to grasp the meaning of material)
3: application (convert abstract knowledge into practice)
4: analysis (breaking down a communication into its constituent part)
5: synthesis (Combining the consistent parts to make it whole)
6: evaluation (it involve judgement)
2. Affective domain:
• The term ‘affects’ has literary meaning of feeling, emotion, and having preference for some objective, issue, notion and etc. Affect is also treated as response to different social, political, and economics issue in the form of attitudes
•The affective domain deals with attitude, motivation, emotions, willingness to participate, valuing what is being learned and ultimately incorporating the value of discipline into a way of life. It ask for better students participation.
3. Psychomotor domain:
• It is mainly concerned with the acquisition of technical skill. Following are the five different levels of instructional objective in psychomotor domain.
1. Limitation
2. Manipulation
3. Precision
4. Articulation
5. Naturalization
LEVELS OF PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN:
a. Imitation: it include demonstration of skill by skilled person and the learners tries to follow the same.
b. Manipulation: a learners tries to experiment the various aspects, like manipulating machinery, equipment, etc.
c.Precision: accuracy in performing various acts increases with practice
d. Articulation: achieve a desired level of efficiency and effectiveness through practice.
e. Naturalization: skill is internalized and an individual is able to adapt, modify or design new technique methods or procedures according to the requirement of a situation.
• Test may be called as tool, a question, set of question, an examination which is used to measure a particular characteristic of an or a group of individuals.
• Test is the form of questioning or measuring tool used to access the status of one’s skill, attitude and fitness.
• TEST: An instrument or activity used to accumulate data on a person’s ability to performed a specified task.
• It is an assessment intended to measure a test-taker’s knowledge, skill, aptitude, performance, or classification in many other topics.
• process of collecting data on Measurement process
• Measurement is an act or process, that involves the assignment of numerical values to whatever is being tested. So it involves the quantity of something.
•Measurement is the term used to describe the assignment of a number to a given assessment. The number can be a raw score or a score based on a normal distribution curve. The process of quantifying this number is separate from using this information to evaluate student outcomes and achievement.
KINDS OF TEST :
• Objective Test
• Subjective Test
•Individual Test
• Group Test
• Unstandardized Test
• Standardized Test
•Objective test –
it is a test paper and pencil test where in students answers can be compared and quantified to yield a numerical score. This is because it requires convergent and specific response.
• Subjective Test- it is a paper and pencil test, which is not easily quantified as students are given the freedom to write their answer to a question, such as an essay test. Thus, the answer to this type of test is divergent.
• Individual Test- it is a test administrated to one student at a time.
• Group Test- it is one administrated to a group of students.
• Unstandardized Test- it is one prepared by teachers for use in the classroom, with no established norms for scoring and interpretation of results.
• Standardized Test- it is a test prepared by an expert or specialist. This type of test samples behavior under uniform procedures.
PURPOSE OF TEST & MEASUREMENT :
• For getting knowledge about the progress.
•For preparation of effective planning.
•For knowing the abilities and capacities.
•For giving motivation.
• For knowing the achievements in future.
• For research and experimentations.
Assessment:
• Assessment is the process of documenting, usually in measurable terms, knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs.
• Assessment in education is the process of gathering, interpreting, recording & using information about pupils’ responses to an educational task.
• Assessment can focus on the individual learner, the learning community(class, workshop, or other organized group of learners), the institution, or the educational system.
• The process of gathering quantitative and qualitative data of what a student can do, and how much a student possesses.
TYPES OF ASSESSMENT :
1. Formal assessment:
• Formal assessments have data which support the conclusions made from the test. We usually refer to these types of tests as standardized.
• The data is mathematically computer and summarized. Scores such as percentiles, stanines or standard scores are mostly commonly give from this type of assessment.
2. INFORMAL ASSESSMENT :
• Informal assessments are not data driven but rather content and performance driven. For example, running records are informal assessments because they indicate how well a student is reading a specific book. Scores such as 10 correct out of 15, percent of words read correctly, and most rubric scores are given from this type of assessment.
3. FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
• “A diagnostic use of assessment to provide feedback to teachers and students over the course of instruction.” Carol Boston
• gathering of data during a time program is being develop. This is likewise provide feedback for the improvement of an instruction or for the improvement of the program.
4. Summative assessment :
• “A summative assessment is one attempts to assess student learning for a specific time period. For example, a unit test would be a summative assessment.” Ralph Eden
• Use to determine the mastery & achievement of the student.
• Done usually at the end of a chapter or unit.
• Accountability of success or failure.
• Use primarily in assigning grades.
• Designed to determine the extent to which the instructional objectives has been achieved.
• The goal of summative assessment is to evaluate student learning at the end of an instructional unit by comparing it against some standard or benchmark.
PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT :
• To diagnose students’ strengths and weaknesses.
• To assign grades.
• To determine the teachers’ effectiveness.
• To monitor students’ progress.
• To help evaluate teachers.
Evaluation:
• Evaluation is concerned with a whole range of issues in and beyond education; lessons, programs, and skills can be evaluated. It produce a global view of achievements usually based on many different types of information such as observation of lessons, test scores, assessment reports, course documents or interviews with students and teachers.
• The process of making overall judgement about one’s work or a whole school work (Cameron)
• Evaluation is a process of determining to what extend the educational objectives are being realized — Ralph Taylor
NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF EVALUATION :
Evaluation is a broader term than the measurement. It is more
comprehensive than mere measurement. It is more inclusive than the term measurement. It goes ahead of measurement which simply indicates the numerical value. It gives the value judgment to the numerical value. It includes both tangible and intangible qualities.
Therefore evaluation is much more comprehensive and inclusive term than measurement and test. A test is a set of questions, measurement is assigning numbers to the results of the test according to some rules o the other hand evaluation adds value judgment. Therefore evaluation includes both quantitative description (measurement) and qualitative description (non-measurement) along with value judgments.
The main aim of teaching learning process is to enable the pupil to achieve intended learning outcomes. In this process the learning objectives are fixed then after the instruction learning progress is periodically evaluated by tests and other evaluation devices.
The need and importance of evaluation can be perceived in the
following ways :
• Evaluation helps in preparing instructional objectives.
• Evaluation process helps in assessing the learners’ needs.
• It helps in providing feedback to the students.
• It helps in preparing programmed materials.
• It helps in curriculum development.
• It helps in reporting pupils’ progress to the parents.
• Evaluation data are very much useful in guidance and
counseling.
• It helps in effective school administration.
• Evaluation data are helpful in school research.
PURPOSE OF EVALUATION :
A comprehensive scheme of educational evaluation serves a number of purposes that ultimately contribute to the improvement of the instructional methods, text books, curriculum and even an advancement of our educational goals. “Education helps us to set tasks and goals which are higher than what we aspired for earlier, thus giving leadership in education” broadly speaking the purposes of evaluation can be categorized into two kinds, Educational and administrative.The educational purpose of evaluation are primarily concerned with quality control in relation to
A) The Learning: This includes such functions as monitoring student
progress, diagnosing student weakness, determining the need for
remedial work, and improving the quality of the learning environment.
B) The Teaching: This is concerned with assessing the effectiveness
of teaching, the teaching strategies, methods and techniques.
C) The curriculum: This includes improving courses and curricula,
texts and students and teacher’s materials.
The administrative purposes of evaluation include accountability to:
A) Society: This includes accountability to society in terms of the
demands and requirements of the employment market.
B) Parents: This mainly manifests itself in a perceived need for
regular reporting to parents about the progress of their children.
C) Educational system: This includes the requirements of
educational system itself for purpose of selection of students for
various courses, such as for entrance to higher grade or tertiary level.
Types of evaluation :
1. PLACEMENT EVALUATION
Placement evaluation is concerned with the pupil’s entry
behavior and typically focuses on questions such as the following
(1) Does the pupil possess the knowledge and skills needed to begin
have a sufficient command of computational skills? (2) To what extent
has the pupil already mastered the objectives of the planned
instructions? Sufficient mastery might indicate the desirability of the
pupil’s skipping certain units or of his being placed in more advanced
course. (3). To what extent do the pupil’s interest, work, habits and
personality characteristics indicate that one mode of instruction might
be better than another e.G. Group instruction versus independent study.
Answers to questions like these require the use of a variety of
techniques; readiness tests., aptitude tests, pre-tests on course
objectives, self-report inventories, observations techniques and so on
The goal of placement evaluation is to determine the position in the
instructional sequence and the mode of instruction that are most likely
to provide optimum achievement of each pupil.
2 FORMATIVE EVALUATION
As noted earlier, formative evaluation is used to monitor
learning progress of students during instruction. Its purpose is to
provide continuous feedback to both pupil and teacher concerning
learning successes and faults. Feedback to students provides reinforcement of successes of learning and identifies the specific learning error that needs correction. Feedback to the teacher provides information for modifying instruction and for prescribing group and individual work. Formative evaluation depends heavily on specially prepared test for each segment of instruction (e.G., Unit Chapter).
These are usually mastery tests that provide direct measures of
all the intended learning outcomes of the segment prescriptions for
alternative of remedial instruction are typically keyed to each item in
the test or to each set of items measuring a separate skill. Tests used for formative evaluation are most frequently teacher-made, but customized testes (tests made to order by publishers ) can also useful in monitoring pupil progress and identifying learning errors. Since formative evaluation is directed toward improving learning and instruction the
results are typically not used for assigning course grades.
3. DIAGNOSTIC EVALUATION
Diagnostic evaluation is concerned with the pupil’s persistent or recurring learning difficulties that are left unresolved by the standard corrective prescriptions of formative evaluation. If a pupil continues to experience failure in reading, mathematics. Or other subjects. Despite the use of prescribed alternate methods of instruction (e.G. Programmed materials visual aids). Then a more detailed diagnosis indicated. To use a medical analogy, formative evaluation provides first aid treatment for simple learning problems, and diagnostic evaluations searches for the
underlying causes of those problems that do not respond to first aid treatment. It involves the use of specially prepared diagnostic tests as
well as various observational techniques. Serious learning problems are also likely to require the services of remedial, psychological and
medical specialists. The primary aim of diagnostic evaluation is to determine the causes of learning problems and to formulate a plan for remedial action.
4. SUMMATIVE EVALUATION
Summative evaluation typically comes at the end of a course(or unit) of instruction. It is designed to determine the extent to which the instructional objectives have been achieved and is used primarily for assigning course grades or for certifying pupil mastery of theintended learning outcomes. The techniques used in summative
evaluation are determined by the instructional objectives, but they
typically include teacher made achievement tests ratings on various
types of performances (e.G. Laboratory, oral report). Although the main
purpose of summative evaluation is grading, or the certification of pupil
mastery, it also provides information for judging the appropriateness of
the course objectives and the effectiveness of the instruction.
5. Criterion-referenced evaluation :
Criterion referenced evaluation are designed to measure student performance against a fixed set of predetermined criteria or learning standards-i.E., concise, written descriptions of what students are expected to know and be able to do at a specific stage of their education. (fail or pass only)
Characteristics of criterion referenced test :
• Its main objective is to measure student’s achievement of curriculum based skills.
• It is balanced representation of goals and objectives.
• It is used to evaluate the curriculum plan instruction progress and group students interaction.
• It can be administrated before and after instruction.
• It is generally reported in the form of minimum scores, number of correct items, percent of correct items and derived score based on correct items and other factors.
Uses of CRT :
• To discover the inadequacies in learners learning and assist the weaker section.
• To identify the master learners.
• Find out the level of attainment of objectives.
• To find out the level at which a particular concept has been learnt.
• To better placement of concepts at different grade levels.
Limitations of CRT :
Chase (1974) lists the following limitations :
• Does not show how good or poor is the learners level of ability.
• Influenced by a given teachers interest or biases.
• Important for only a small fraction of important educational achievement.
6. Norms Referenced evaluation :
• Norm-referenced evaluation is the traditional class-based assignment of numerals to the attribute being measured. It means that the measurement act relates to some norm, group or a typical performance. It is an attempt to interpret the test results in terms of the performance of a certain group (relative position in a group)
• Examples of norm-referenced tests include the SAT, IQ tests, and tests that are graded on a curve.
Characteristics of NRT :
• Its basic purpose is to measure students achievement in curriculum based skills.
• It is prepared for a particular grade level.
• It is administrated after instruction.
• It is used for forming homogeneous or heterogeneous class groups.
•It classifies achievement as above average, average or below average for a given grade.
• Reported in the form of Percentile rank, linear standard score.
Uses of NRT :
• It is useful in making aptitude testing
• To get reliable rank ordering of pupils.
• To identify the pupils who have mastered.
• Select best of the application for a particular programme
• For effective comparison of other possible programme
Limitations of NRT :
• There is lack of congruence between what the test measures.
• Test items that are answered correctly by most of the pupils are not included.
• Promotes unhealthy competition.
Continuous & Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) :
Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE), recommended as a school-based system of evaluation by different policy documents from time- to-time and mandated under Section 29(2) of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act-2009, can be an effective and potent tool, to help teachers, parents/guardians and children themselves take charge of the learning and development.
Continual aspect refers to the assessment of learners’ progress on various aspects from the very beginning of instructions, (placement evaluation) till end i.E. Summative evaluation.
Characteristics of Continuous Evaluation :
1) Continuous evaluation is formative in nature and is school based. It is to be carried out by teachers teaching a particular class.
2) The purpose of continuous evaluation is mainly improvement in learning. For this the learning gaps and weaknesses are diagnosed so that feedback can be provided.
3) Continuous evaluation is informally carried out in the classroom; there is no need of making lengthy arrangements required for a formal examination like preparation and administration of question papers, seating arrangement, etc.
4) Multiple techniques of evaluation need to be used for continuous evaluation. These include not only written tests, but oral tests, quizzes, assignments, projects, observation, peer evaluation, self appraisal, etc.
5) Continuous evaluation is built into the total teaching-learning programme and is a part of the daily routine for a teacher.
Nature of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation :
• The nature of CCE is so comprehensive that it includes almost all aspects of child development.
• It integrates assessment with teaching and learning process; emphasizing assessment of learner abilities in scholastic areas along with the co- scholastic areas.
• CCE encourages and motivates students to be positive in their attitudes.
• It emphasizes that teacher’s judgment should be made through an honest and objective appraisal without bias.
• It also encourages continuous interaction with parents with regard to their children’s progress and performance.
• CCE is developmental in nature because emphasis is given on improvement of students’ learning throughout the schooling process.
• It is a process of continuous attempts to assess whether desirable changes are taking place in students along the lines of educational objectives.
Purposes of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation :
• CCE emphasizes evaluation as a process in place of an event.
• CCE helps learners, parents and teachers in the following ways:
• It reduces stress and anxiety, which often builds up among the young students during and after the examination.
• It reduces the dropout rate as there will be less fear and anxiety among learners related to their school performance.
• In CCE, greater focus is given on learning rather than on conducting tests and examinations.
• It contributes to the holistic development of learners.
• CCE is used as an instrument of preparing learners for future life by making them physically fit, mentally alert, emotionally balanced and socially adjusted.
• Learners get more time to develop their interests,hobbies and personalities through CCE.
• It promotes a learner friendly environment, thereby optimizes student learning.
• It equips students with life skills, especially creative and critical thinking skills, social skills and coping skills which will help them to face a highly competitive environment later on.
Grading system :
•The grading system is the process by which educators evaluate the performance of the G pupils in exams on the standard particular scales which is based on the points entirely and consist of the grades like A-F or range like 1-10; generally, letters and numbers are used to describe the grades of the scholars
• A grading system in education is a system that is used to assess the educational performance of a child which is entirely based upon points alone.
Features of grading :
• When students level of performance are classified into a few classificatory units using letter grade, system of assessment is called grading system.
• In grading classification is made on 5 point, 7 point, 9 point scale.
• It is a score
• It identifies students performance level with a wide range
• It involves the use of set of specialized symbols whose meaning ought to be objectively defined in terms of specific criteria.
General classification of grading :
• Percentage Grading – From 0 to 100 Percent
• Letter grading and variations – From A Grade to F grade
• Norm-referenced grading – Comparing students to each other usually letter grades
• Mastery grading -Grading students as “masters” or passers when their attainment reaches prespecified level
• Pass/Fail-Using the Common Scale as Pass/Fail
•Standards grading (or Absolute-Standards grading or Criterion Referred grading) – Comparing student performance to a pre-established standard (level) of performance
• Narrative grading-Writing Comments about students
Types of grading :
1. Direct grading:
• Judgment of any given phenomenon (achievement) skills, personality traits the evaluator in items of most appropriate letter grade without assigning the scores.
• In examination, the evaluator will award a particular grade to the answer for each individual questions on the basis of its quality.
• The Grade Point Average (GPA) calculated for obtaining the overall grade of the student in a particular subject
2. Indirect grading :
• Method of awarding grades through marks.
• Marks are awarded to the individual questions on the basis of the prescribed marking scheme.
• Find out the total mark and convert to grade
3. Absolute grading :
• Based on a definite set of standard when.Bu evaluating a student’s performance
• Based on teachers pre-specifying standard for performance.
• Based on criterion referenced, and keep tasks mind without any variability.
• Some fixed range of scores are determined in advance for each grade.
• The score obtained by a student in a subject converted.
4. Relative Grading:
• It ids based on how a student’s performance compared to others in the group/class.
• It is norm referenced and focus on the vari in the quality of students.
• The grading range is not fixed in advance.
• It shows a normal probability curve
Basic characteristics of a good measuring instruments:
1. Reliability-
The reliability of the test refers to the consistency of scores obtained by the same individual at different occasions.
1st day scores obtained -47 After 7 days scores obtained for the same test -47.
Factors affecting The reliability :
• Length of the test -If length is more Reliability is high.
• Range of respondents ability -if it is greater, reliability is high.
• Span of age group of respondents- If It is large, reliability is high.
• Method of determining the reliability.
• Time span between two tests- If it is greater, then the reliability is less.
• Way of evaluating the answers sheet-If it is objective, then the reliability is high.
• Difficulty level high-Reliability is less.
• Language of the questions-If the language is difficult, reliability is less.
• The way of answering -If it is done by guessing, then the reliability is less.
• Environment -It also affects the validity.
• Optional questions-If optional questions are given, reliability reduces.
2. Validity :
• Validity is the authenticity of the test.
• The test should measure what it supposed to be measured.
• If any test is fulfilling its objective then that is called as the valid test.
• The concept of validity was formulated by Kelly (1927, p. 14) who stated that a test is valid if it measures what it claims to measure.
• For example a test of intelligence should measure intelligence and not memory.
Factors affecting Validity-
• Culture,
• Ambiguous instructions.
• Low level questions.
• Medium of the Test (Language-whether mother tongue or not))
• Questions based on the objective or not.
• Improper variables.
• Bias.
•Time given Way of answering. (By making guess or not) Language of the test. (Easy, understandable of not)
• Difficulty level.
• Evaluation method- objective/subjective
3. Objectivity :
•Absence of subjectivity is nothing but objectivity.
• there should not be any change in the scores when the test is evaluated by different supervisors.
• To find out objectivity, the test is checked by two different supervisors & coefficient of correlation is found out.
Scales of measurement :
Scales of measurement, also known as levels of measurement or types of variables, are classifications that indicate the nature and characteristics of the data being collected. These scales help researchers understand the properties of the variables they are working with, which in turn informs the appropriate statistical analyses and interpretations. There are four main scales of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.
1. Nominal Scale:
• Definition: The nominal scale is the simplest level of measurement, where variables are categorized into distinct, non-ordered categories or labels.
• Examples: Gender (male, female), Marital status (single, married, divorced), Types of truck)
• Characteristics:
• Categories are mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
• There is no inherent order or ranking among categories
• Mathematical operations (e.G., addition, subtraction)
2. Ordinal scale :
• Definition: In the ordinal scale, data are categorized between the categories are not equal.
• Examples: Educational levels (elementary, high school,college ), likert scale responses (strongly disagree, disagree,neutral, agree, strongly agree), Rank order (1st place,2nd ace,3rd place)
• Characteristics:
• Categories have a meaningful order ranking.
•,Differences between categories may not be consistent or measurable.
• Relative positioning is known,but the magnitude of differences is not.
3. Interval Scale:
• Definition: the interval scale maintains the ordered categories of the ordinal scale but also has equal intervals between consecutive points . However, there is no true zero point.
• Example : Temperature measured in celsius or Fahrenheit, Calendar years (e.G., 2021, 2022, 2023).
• characteristic :
• Equal intervals between points.
• Absence of a true zero point; zero does not indicate the absence of the attribute.
• Addition and subtraction operations are meaningful, but multiplication and division are not.
4. Ratio Scale:
• Definition: The ratio scale possesses all the properties of the interval scale, but it also has a true zero point, which signifies the absence of the attribute being measured.
Examples: Height, Weight, Time (in seconds), Money.
• Characteristics :
• Equal intervals between points
• Presence of a true zero point, where zero indicates the absence of the attribute.
•All arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) are meaningful.