Medieval and Modern World Transformations: Kingdoms, Society, and Economy
The Germanic Kingdoms and the Fall of the Roman Empire
Theodosius the Great divided the late fourth-century Roman Empire into the Eastern and Western Roman Empires. As the Western Roman Empire weakened, various peoples, often called ‘barbarians,’ migrated into Roman territory, leading to the formation of small kingdoms. Major kingdoms included the Ostrogoths, Franks, Visigoths, Angles, and Saxons.
Features of the Germanic Kingdoms
Germanic peoples migrated from central and eastern Europe, a movement accelerated by groups like the Huns. These migrations led to the establishment of Germanic kingdoms. Clans united members of the same family lineage. Assemblies of free men, warriors, and courts of justice were common, with chiefs or kings often chosen electively. They adopted Latin, converted to Christianity, and were governed by Roman law. Ruralization became prominent, with land as the main source of wealth. Large Roman estates remained, but trade declined, and culture suffered impoverishment.
The Carolingian Empire
The Frankish kingdom rose to prominence, with mayors of the palace holding significant power. Charles Martel halted the advance of Islam into Europe. His son, Pepin the Short, deposed the last Frankish king and became the new king. Pepin’s son, Charlemagne, reformed the Carolingian monarchy. The empire was organized into counties, each governed by a count. Border provinces, known as marks, became military zones governed by a marquis. After Charlemagne, Louis the Pious divided the empire among his three sons. Pecha referred to a farmer’s obligations, manzo to leased land, and reserves to land exploited by the lord.
Feudalism
Feudalism was a system of relationships and dependencies between lords and vassals that persisted throughout the Middle Ages. A free man (vassal) swore allegiance to a lord and entered their service, receiving a fief in return. Peasants lived in villages around the lord’s residence. These domains were divided, with some plots cultivated by peasants who paid rent.
Medieval Society
Medieval society was composed of three orders or estates: warriors (nobility), the ecclesiastical establishment, and peasants. The nobility possessed manors, the clergy were privileged and collected tithes, and the peasants formed the most numerous estate.
Economic and Demographic Growth (11th-13th Centuries)
Europe’s population experienced significant growth. Agricultural progress included plowing more land and improved yields through technical innovations like iron tools and new plows.
The Resurgence of Cities
Increased population and food availability led to migration from rural areas to cities, reviving urban life. New professions emerged, and craftsmen formed guilds. Cities became centers of trade, with new districts called Burgos.
Art and Culture
Romanesque Art: Architecture featured temples with three-ambulatory ships and monasteries. Sculpture and painting were subordinate to architecture.
Gothic Art: Architecture introduced the vault and flying buttress. Gothic sculpture became more naturalistic, and stained glass became important.
The Crisis of the 14th Century
Demographic Crisis: Crop failures led to widespread hunger. The Black Death in 1348 ravaged Europe, exacerbated by the Hundred Years’ War.
Economic Crisis: Population loss led to economic collapse. Agriculture suffered from price drops, the textile industry lost labor, and trade declined due to Turkish expansion.
Social Conflicts: The crisis led to confrontations between social groups in rural and urban areas. Clashes occurred between the middle class and upper-class craftsmen, and popular rebellions arose due to hunger.
Political Changes: The demographic and economic crisis led to social and political changes, with kings regaining power.
Cultural Revolution: The conflict affected the spiritual world, with a restatement of medieval ideas and the emergence of new ones.
Transformations of the Modern World
The Beginning of the Capitalist System: Urban development, trade liberalization, and manufacturing production led to the search for raw materials further afield.
New Trade Routes
The closure of Turkish Mediterranean routes led to new explorations: Castile’s discovery of America (Christopher Columbus), Portugal’s skirting of Africa (Vasco da Gama), and Magellan’s circumnavigation of the world (Elcano).
The Protestant Reformation
The Lutheran Reformation succeeded in northern Europe. Calvinists believed in predestination. Anglicans broke with Rome under Henry VIII. The Catholic Counter-Reformation reaffirmed Catholic dogma, intensified missionary work, and led to religious wars.
Cultural Revolution
The invention of the printing press (Gutenberg) and the heliocentric theory (Copernicus) marked a cultural revolution.
Democracy and Society
Demographic: European population grew slowly due to high mortality from epidemics like the plague and smallpox, as well as frequent wars.
Estamental Society: Society was divided into three groups: nobles, clergy, and the third estate. Nobles lost some independence, the clergy was privileged, and the third estate, including the bourgeoisie and peasants, supported the state with taxes.
The Economy in the Modern World
Agriculture and livestock remained the foundations of society. Traditional crops included grain and fallow. New American crops like potatoes, corn, tomatoes, and tobacco were introduced. The agricultural revolution saw the abandonment of fallow, new products, and the use of machines.
Trade and Manufacturing
Trade expanded to new territories in the Americas and Africa. Domestic trade was limited. Triangular trade transported slaves to America, precious metals and raw materials to Europe, and manufactured goods to American colonies. Britain became dominant in the 18th century. Manufacturing expanded, especially in England, Holland, and northern Italy.
Absolutism of the Modern State
The defining feature was the increase in the monarch’s power. Kings gained more power through personal bureaucracies, professional armies, and separate taxes. Authoritarian monarchies evolved into absolute monarchies, where the king’s power was seen as divinely ordained. Absolutism was common in Europe, with enlightened despots seeking to modernize their countries.
States During the Middle Ages
Charles I of Spain (Charles V of Germany) inherited numerous territories. The Spanish hegemony saw Charles I inherit the crowns of Castile and Aragon, Italian possessions, America, Austria, the imperial throne, and the Netherlands. Philip II inherited Spanish territories and possessions. He defeated the Turks but faced revolts in the Netherlands and opposition from England under Elizabeth I.
The Strife
Religious wars escalated in the 17th century during the Thirty Years’ War, which began as a clash between Catholics and Protestants in the German Empire and became a struggle for European hegemony. The Treaty of Westphalia established French hegemony, and Spain lost its European possessions.
Balance
The 18th century saw the establishment of a continental balance, with great powers balancing each other. Spain lost its possessions and was reduced to the mainland.