Medieval Catalonia: Rise and Expansion
1. Barcelona’s Dominance (11th Century)
1.1. Subjugation of the Feudal Nobility
Between 1041 and 1059, Count Ramon Berenguer I consolidated his authority over other Catalan counties by subduing the feudal nobility. He offered a pact: nobles became his vassals in exchange for control over their peasant populations. This solidified Catalonia’s feudal system, with Pallars and Roussillon remaining the only counties outside Barcelona’s direct control.
1.2. Relations with Al-Andalus
The 1031 fragmentation of the Cordoba Caliphate into weak Taifa kingdoms allowed Barcelona and Urgell to demand annual tributes (pariahs). This influx of gold strengthened Barcelona’s authority, enabling them to hire soldiers and control the nobility. Feudal violence was limited by the sagrera law (church sanctuary) and Abbot Oliva’s peace assemblies.
2. Expansion into New Catalonia
2.1. Conquest of New Catalonia (1118-1153)
The rapid conquest of Tarragona, Tortosa, Lleida, and the Prades Mountains significantly expanded Barcelona and Urgell’s territories. The new frontier was established at the Ports de Tortosa-Beseit and the Sénia River.
2.2. Repopulation of New Catalonia
The expansion benefited all social groups. Nobles received land grants, new monasteries (like Poblet and Santes Creus) were founded, and settlers from Old Catalonia were granted charters to establish new towns (viles franques), escaping their feudal lords. A Muslim presence remained, particularly in the lower Segre and Ebro regions.
3. Union with Aragon and Southern France
3.1. Union with Aragon (1137)
The childless death of King Alfonso I of Aragon led to the succession of his brother, Ramiro II. Ramiro’s daughter, Petronila, married Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona, creating the Crown of Aragon. While maintaining separate laws and institutions, both regions shared a monarch. The first was Alfonso II, known as the Chaste.
3.2. Southern France Ambitions
By 1200, the Crown of Aragon had expanded into Occitania in southern France. This expansion alarmed the French kings, who, allied with the Pope, used the pretext of combating the Cathar heresy to invade. Peter I of Aragon defended his vassals but was defeated and killed at the Battle of Muret (1213), resulting in the loss of Catalan Occitania, except for Roussillon and Cerdanya.
4. Expansion under James I
4.1. Conquest of Mallorca (1229)
Funded by Barcelona’s merchants, nobility, and the Church, the conquest of Mallorca in 1229 (followed by Ibiza in 1235 and Menorca in 1287) allowed the Crown of Aragon to begin its Mediterranean expansion. Muslims were expelled from Mallorca, and their properties were divided among the king, Catalan nobility, and the Church. The island was repopulated by Catalans.
4.2. Conquest of Valencia (1232-1245)
Driven by the Aragonese nobility (with Catalan participation), the conquest of Valencia added a new kingdom with its own laws and institutions to the Crown of Aragon. Agreements allowed many Muslims to remain, initially outnumbering Christians. Christian repopulation was slow, with Catalans settling the coast and Aragonese the interior.
5. Mediterranean Expansion: Sicily, Sardinia, and the Catalan Company
5.1. Conquest of Sicily
Sicily’s grain production and strategic location controlling Mediterranean trade routes led to conflict between the Crown of Aragon and France (supported by the Pope). The Catalan victory (1285) resulted in papal approval for the occupation of Sardinia and Corsica.
5.2. Conquest of Sardinia (1323)
Sardinia, attractive to Catalan merchants, was conquered in 1323 under James II. Resistance, particularly from Alghero, led to the expulsion of its inhabitants and its repopulation by Catalans, explaining the persistence of a Catalan dialect there.
5.3. The Catalan Company and the Almogavars
The duchies of Athens (1311) and Neopatria (1319) were conquered by the Catalan Company, a private army of almogavar warriors led by figures like Roger de Flor. These conquests, along with others, established Barcelona as a major commercial center.
6. Catalan Government Institutions
6.1. The Corts (Parliament)
Evolving from advisory assemblies (Curia Regis) of nobles, clergy, and judges, the Corts emerged as a legislative body representing the three estates. Laws required the consent of all, including the king, a principle known as pacts. Aragon and Valencia had their own Corts, with only occasional Crown-wide assemblies.
6.2. The General Council (Government)
From 1289, the Corts delegated tax collection to a six-member committee, the General Council (later the Government). Becoming a permanent institution by 1362, the Government, representing the three estates and chaired by a cleric, acted as a counterbalance to the king, upholding the principle of pacts.